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By M. A. Elliott, H. H. Schrenk, L. G. Berger, John C. Holtz

"INTRODUCTION Interest in the possibility of using Diesel 6/ engines for haulage power in mining and tunneling is increasing in the United States, owing largely to the reported successful use of Diesel locomotives in European coal mines and to the comparatively recent development of automotive Diesel engines in this country. The extent of this interest has been evidenced to the Bureau of Mines by numerous requests for information as to the factors that must be considered if Diesel engines are to be used safely underground.Proponents of the application of the Diesel engine to underground haulage base their claims for its safety upon a comparison with the gasoline engine, assuming that (1) the carbon monoxide content of Diesel exhaust gas is always low and that (2) fire and explosion hazards from Diesel fuel are minimized because of its low volatility. In these respects the Diesel engine appears less hazardous than the gasoline engine, whose use underground has been discouraged by the Bureau of Mines and other organizations interested in safety in mining. However, such generalizations cannot be accepted as conclusive evidence that safety is inherent in Diesel engines in underground service, as European experience indicates that certain hazards may accompany their use. Such hazards were discussed in a previous publication 7/ that reviews developments in the use of Diesel locomotives in European coal mines.The Bureau of Mines has initiated a study of the hazards that may attend the use of Diesel engines underground to obtain first-hand information that may serve as a basis for recommending sale practices under conditions existing in the United States."

May 1, 1940

By E. Don Dilling, W. F. Holbrook, Lloyd R. Michels, James W. Pennington, Dwight L. Harris, Wm. F. Hergert, Cyrus L. Blogett, H. A. Doerner, Ernest A. Reige

"IntroductionA process for production of magnesium by carbothermal reduction was developed at Padentheirm, Austria, by the Austro Americanische Magnesit Corporation& an independent investigation of this and other processes was started in 1937 by the Bureau of Mines at Pullman, Wash., with the cooperation of Washington State College. 10/ A preliminary study of the Radentheirm pro¬cess, as revealed by the meager information then available, demonstrated the following two major disadvantages,The use of hydrogen for shock cooling requires an enormous volume of gas - about 1,000 cubic feet for condensing each pound of metal as a pyrophoric dust which must be completely separated from this gas. Then if the gas is to be recycled for repeated use, the CO produced by the reduction reaction must be separated from the hydrogen. These separations are costly from the standpoint of equipment and operation. 11/The condensate is an impure, pyrophoric metal powder that must be purified and converted to coherent form. This is accomplished by distillation or sublimation of the metal. Distillation on a large scale involves difficulties inherent in the high boiling point (1,107° C.) and the chemical activity of the metal. To avoid these difficulties, the metal is sublimed at 600° C. and of very low pressure. This is quite easily carried out as a batch operation but is a costly procedure. A continuous sublimation process has not been accompli shed."

May 1, 1945

By J. Ritchey

This report describes the engineering feasibility and economic advantages of using a mobile bridge-type cross-pit belt conveyor system in conjunction with a large dragline to excavate and transport spoils in a typical Western surface coal mine. The studies show that such a system could be built to survive operational and climatic mining conditions, and that its implementation would offer a reduction in both acquisition and operating costs versus conventional mining units of comparable rapacity. Reclamation costs can also be significantly reduced, and the total reclamation process accelerated, making the cross-pit conveyor system attractive to mine Owners and environmentalists alike.

Jan 1, 1976

By A. W. Fahrenwald

"The rate of progress in the last three years in the development of differential flotation has been rapid beyond the realization of most people. Differential flotation is no longer a ""delicate"" and unreliable process, but is now in wide use. Its ""safety"" is due to the wide use of chemicals which either depress or enhance floatability by definite modification of surfaces.The extent of the development and reliability of differential flotation methods any be emphasized by pointing out that there are now several customall-flotation"" plants in this country treating complex lead-zinc-iron ores from widely separated mines. While these ores differ in chemical composition and apparently in physical nature, the various ores treated in such a plant are passed through the same crushing and grinding equipment and through the same flotation machines and flow sheet with only slight changes, if any, in quantity and kind of chemicals and oils added.Some of the development in differential flotation is due to intelligent research on the part of well-trained chemists and metallurgists; much of It must be attributed to empirical testing.Much of the success in differential flotation is due to more care being given to constant conditions with regard to such factors as (1) fineness of grinding, (2) density of pulp entering flotation machines, (3) quantity and constancy of oils and chemicals added to the pulp, and (4) place of addition of reagents, and time of ""conditioning"" treatment of pulp with reagents."

Aug 1, 1925

By Walter I. Enderlin

To economically extract ore from great depths in the earth while sustaining an acceptable working environment will require the development of new technology and equipment, involving large capital expenditures. Moreover, careful analysis and advance planning will be required. But, the literature is lacking in data pertaining; to the thermal properties of various host rocks and to quantities of heat generated by various underground heat sources. This types, of data is required to forecast nine heat loads during advanced planning and design. This thesis sets forth a practical method for evaluating underground sources of heat in deep mines and provides an improved information base. Moreover, seven topics for further research are recommended. The heat sources considered are: wall-rock, ground water, adiabatic compression, equipment, service lines, blasting, metabolism, curing of cement, and oxidation of sulfides and timber. Seven deep metal mines with high production rates and high heat loads were visited to obtain data necessary to assess their thermal environments. Mine records were examined, wall-roc:, temperatures were measured and a survey of the mine ventilating air and mine drainage was performed. Also, the thermal conductivity of wet and dry specimens of the host rock were measured in the laboratory. Data analysis disclosed that rock heat and adiabatic compression account for stout 60 per cent of the mine heat load at depth. Equipment currently contributes approximately 20 per cent; however, to offset increasing costs with depth, increased mechanization is anticipated. The treat from ground water averages 19 per cent and the contribution from blasting, metabolism and cement is negligible. Also, approximately [0] per cent of the increase in the enthalpy of the ventilation air is in the form of latent heat. Moisture, however, did not significantly affect the thermal conductivity of the rock specimens measured in the laboratory. Also, from the data, it is evident that a negative correlation exists between the thermal conductivity of the host rocks and the per cent of the heat load derived from the wail-rock. Furthemore, steady state heat flow renditions may be assumed in airways where there has been no major changes in the ventilation system for a period of two years or more. Under these conditions, the author found it more convenient and reliable to compute heat influx using the steady state equation for heat flow into a cylinder, rather than Carrier's method for transient heat flow, which is so often used.

Jan 1, 1973

By Graham W. Marks

Recently it was shown the total energy method of spectrochemical analysis is suitable for the quantitative estimation of many of the elements of which ores are composed. It was shown how this method can be applied to the determination of germanium, tin, and lead. Continuing, this work, the present report deals with analyses for beryllium, zinc, cadmium; and indium. There are three basic problems in these investigations. The first is to study the influence of those elements that make up the greater part of an ore sample on the spectral-line intensities of the elements for which analyses are being made, the latter generally being the minor constituents. The second is to develop proper methods for the preparation of standard spectrographic curves. Finally, we are concerned with improvement in equipment and procedure, so that greater accuracy can be achieved. As discussed previously, it is better to study as groups those elements that belong to the same group in the periodic table because their spectra are similar. Beryllium, zinc, and cadmium are thus related. Indium was included in this work because it is, associated with zinc and cadmium in zinc ores.

Jan 1, 1948

By John J. Mulligan

The Bureau of Mines investigated the tin deposits of the Cape Mountain area during July and August 1962 to test the effectiveness of detrital-cover sampling in permafrost areas as a relatively cheap and simple means of guiding mine development and exploration. Results indicate that systematic detrita1-cover sampling can be used effectively to delineate obscure deposits with sufficient accuracy to permit sampling with a minimum of trenching or drilling. Extensions of known outcroppings were traced in sufficient detail to guide lode sampling and several previously unknown tin-bearing lodes were found and sampled. Lode sampling was limited to the minimum needed to establish the reliability of detrital-cover sampling results. The results of previous lode and placer investigations are summarized and detrital-cover sampling methods and results are described in detail.

Jan 1, 1966

By Gary E. Sherman

To aid the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in their Resource Development Navigation Study of ten existing or proposed port sites in Alaska, the Bureau of Mines examined the potential for mineral development around three Alaska port sites: Iliamna Bay, Kotzebue, and Nome. The mineral deposits near Iliamna Bay include gold, copper, and iron. Development of minerals in this area will require the discovery of new deposits or the definition of additional are reserves at known deposits. The mineral deposits near Kotzebue are primarily gold, copper, coal, lead, and uranium. Based on the character of these deposits, it appears that development of a small-scale mine supplying coal for regional use is the most likely scenario in the near-term. The mineral deposits near Nome are primarily gold and copper. Development of small underground gold mines is possible, however it appears that expanded offshore gold dredging will have the greatest impact on the flow of freight and goods through the Nome port in the near term.

Jan 1, 2011

By B. H. Clemmons, B. G. Saunders, R. H. Stacy

"INTRODUCTION This investigation was undertaken to determine the response of Birmingham (Alabama) red-iron ore to heavy-medium concentration. Specifically, the work involved a study of the efficiency of the process in separating coarse gangue diluents from the ore and an endeavor to evaluate the potential economic results. The investigative work was not intended, nor is it to be construed, to be adequately exhaustive in scope to enable immediate plant construction. Rather, the primary objective was to determine the grade of ore that could be produced by heavy-medium treatment and the resulting indicative or tentative benefits to be derived from such treatment. The latter, in turn, would determine the merits of the more exhaustive study that would be required for an ultimate decision on the heavy-medium treatment of the ores.The problem of avoiding excessive contamination of red-iron ores by shale and/or ferruginous sandstone has been before the operators of the iron mining industry of the Birmingham, Alabama, district for many years. Within the last two decades, increased mechanization of mining methods has increased this contamination to a considerable degree. In fact, general utilization of scraper loading and other mechanical methods of mining, in conjunction with small increases in the natural insoluble content of the ores, in some cases has actually resulted in the production of ""acid"" or excessively insoluble ore, where ""basic"" or excessively lime ores were produced formerly.The contaminating materials are derived largely from roof spells and natural parting seams in the ore, a condition that to some extent has been aggravated by the irregularity of the ore beds. The latter have been subjected to both primary and secondary folding in many places. Considerable faulting has taken place, also. In many localities these conditions render virtually impossible complete avoidance of ore contamination from the over and underlying sandstones and shales. However, in a few localities, where the ore beds are less disturbed and shale partings are absent, mining can and is being accomplished with relatively little dilution."

May 1, 1948

By S. S. Cole, C. E. Wood, T. L. Joseph

"INTRODUCTION Iron ore containing titanium was first used in blast furnaces over a century ago. It is well known that TiO2 is a slag-forming material that will increase the amount of slag produced by the usual gangue materials, silica and alumina. Increase in the volume of slag due to the presence of TiO2 and a lack of information concerning its effect on the properties of the slag have prevented the general use of titaniferous ore. Also rather com¬mon belief among furnace operators that the bottom of the furnace builds up when ores containing TiO2 are smelted has militated against the use of titaniferous ore. This building up of the hearth has been attributed to the formation of copper-colored crystals of titanium cyanonitride, which have been observed in the salamanders of blast furnaces. Until recently the availability of nontitaniferous iron ore has left little incentive to use ore containing titanium.The presence of vanadium in certain deposits of titaniferous magnetite in New York State has created new interest in problems connected with the use of titanium-bearing ore. It appears that most of the vanadium in this ore can be recovered in pig iron, which can be blown in a converter to produce a slag containing vanadium in amounts suitable for the production of ferrovanadium.The Titanium Division of the National Lead Co. recently erected a largo mill to treat ore from Sanford Hill, in Essex County, New York, about 50 miles west of Port Henry. The ore deposit was acquired from the MacIntyre Iron Co. and is often referred to as Sanford ore. It is one of the largest deposits of Iron-bearing material to be found east of the Lake Superior region and is being mined by open-pit methods."

Jan 1, 1943

By R. M. Creamer

Attempts have been made to electroplate titanium and zirconium from aqueous, nonaqueous, and fused-salt electrolytes. Metals were produced only in fused-salt electrolytes, the major product being sponge metal. All other electrolytes gave only partial reduction of the metal ions. Fused alkali borate electrolytes containing titanium salts gave titanium boride powders and coatings of poor adherence. Some of the problems encountered in the deposition of these metals and some of the aspects of titanium and zirconium chemistry involved are discussed. INTRODUCTION Titanium and zirconium are both relatively light, noncorrosive metals with both military and civilian uses. This has led to intensive investigations into the metallurgy of these metals. Both metals are high in the Electrochemical Displacement Series and are difficult to prepare in a pure state. At present they are prepared by reducing their chlorides, using magnesium. Electrolytic reductions have resulted in the preparation of fine powders or sponge of variable quality. It is believed that a good process of electroplating these metals on a baser metal would result in a very desirable product. The objective of the research summarized in this report was to investigate methods of electrodepositing these metals, with the idea of producing uniform, coherent plates. Most of the work was concentrated on titanium, the more abundant of the two metals. A system developed for titanium should be applicable to zirconium owing to their chemical similarity. Information gained from these experiments may also be applicable to the electro-winning of the metal.

Jan 1, 1954

By F. M. Goodwin, John Campbell, G. W. Jones

"INTRODUCTION In cooperation with the Boston Edison Co. and the Boston Consolidated Gas Co. of Boston, Mass., a survey has been conducted continuously since 1929 by the Bureau of Mines to determine the general hazards of combustible gases and vapors in manholes of the Boston Edison Co. The New England Telephone & Telegraph Co. also has cooperated in the investigation, and tests have been made in its manholes from May 1, 1933, to October 15, 1937. Yearly reports. 6/ on the results obtained since the beginning of the survey have been published.The methods and procedure of conducting the survey in 1937 were the same as heretofore."

Jan 1, 1939

To address the safety of programmable electronics-based mining systems before this technology proliferates in the mining industry.

Jan 1, 1999

By Howard E. Rollman

South Central United States, an area including Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Texas, is a net exporter of refractories. Nearly $45 million of these materials was shipped in 1954 from plants in the area, compared with area consumption of $18.5 million. About 88 percent of all refractories production is concentrated in Missouri. The prevalent consumption pattern, however, is one of localized shortages. For example, although Texas uses more than half of the refractories consumed in the South Central United States, production of refractories in Texas is relatively small. Also, the apparent self-sufficiency of the area is in terms of value produced rather than in terms of products consumed. Nearly all of the $6,425,000 nonclay refractories consumed in the area were shipped from other States. Local resources possibly could be developed for making refractories to serve markets that currently are being supplied from outside the area. Since other industries are growing rapidly in the area, the market for refractories is expected to continue to grow--more rapidly than the national market. The Missouri refractories industry is economically important nationally. Nearly one-fourth of the clay refractories produced in the United States are made in Missouri. Moreover, Missouri produces most of the higher grade clay refractories, about 62 percent of the high-alumina refractories, and 85 percent of the superduty refractories. The competitive position of the Missouri refractories industry is strong. The national market for clay refractories and the market in the South Central United States are expected to continue to grow. The ratio of net income to the value of refractories shipped in Missouri is larger than the national average.

Jan 1, 1960

By A. W. Frolli

This paper, describing the mining and reduction methods and costs at the Oceanic quicksilver mine, is one of a series of similar reports being prepared by the Bureau of Mines on various mines in the United states. The property, which is owned and operated by the Anglo American Mining Corporation, Ltd., is 5 miles east of Cambria, San Luis Obispo County, Calif. It lies in a region of steep hills and sharply incised canyons on the west slope of the Santa Lucia Range at an elevation of about 500 feet above sea level. The climate is ideal for living and operating conditions. A 40-mile paved highway connects the mine with San Luis Obispo, the nearest convenient railroad town.

Jan 1, 1937

By L. A. Stinnett

An investigation of hazardous surface openings of abandoned and inactive underground mines in the Black Hills area of South Dakota has revealed: (1) tracing legal ownership of mineral claims via county courthouses is confusing, complex, and oftentimes misleading, (2 ) in general, the selected mine openings in this investigation are to be considered relatively high in risks and hazard potential which poses a threat to the general public, (3) mine closure procedures and designs can generally be categorically implemented depending on the overall situation of the particular mine opening with subsequent unit costs' estimates, (4) few preventive state or federal legal measures exist to date concerning mine closures, and (5) liability damages relating to mine opening accidents usually involve expensive and complex common law cases.

Jan 1, 1979

By Debra A. Griffith

The U.S. Bureau of Mines currently is researching the relationship between the level of back strength and the probability of low-back injury. This report is a review of the literature and statistics on over-exertion injuries. Overexertion continues to be a significant source of injury in metal and nonmetal mining, accounting for approximately 24 pct of all injuries yearly. These injuries, particularly to the lower back, can be very expensive in human and monetary terms. An examination of the accident data on overexertion injuries is necessary to provide a background for research into prevention and/or amelioration of those in-juries. The job categories outlined in the Accident Data Analysis data base most affected are "Mechanic/Electrician" and "Mill/Plant Worker." The age group most affected is "30-39" years, and the experience group most affected is "0-.99" years. The most prevalent type of overexertion injury is "Strain/Sprain," and the trunk is the body part most often involved in an overexertion injury.

Jan 1, 1994

By G. W. Luxbacher

This volume describes the use of the Penn State Mine Ventilation Simulator (PSU/MVS) to model existing mine ventilation systems and, in addition, to evaluate the effect of system modifications. Ventilation survey methods designed to insure computer input data of sufficient accuracy for simulation purposes are covered in comprehensive detail, including quantity and pressure measurement and fan performance testing. The development of input data from ventilation survey results is discussed and illustrated by the use of an actual field survey. Two programs, written in FORTRAN IV with WATFIV, are presented to calculate airway head losses from altimeter pressure measurements. An existing coal mine ventilation system is analyzed and modifications to the system are simulated and evaluated. In addition the application of the PSU/MVS to non-coal mines is briefly discussed. An extensive bibliography on ventilation surveying and simulation is included.

Jan 1, 1977

By J. B. Cunningham

Lithium in the form of metal, salts, and alloys is particularly important because of increasing industrial uses resulting partly from wartime developments. Lithium carbonate and lithium strontium nitrate, which impart a brilliant red color to a flame, are used in pyrotechnics. Lithium chloride and fluoride are used in fluxes for welding aluminum to dissolve the oxide coating on the aluminum and prevent oxidation of the molten metal. Lithium carbonate is used in ceramics in raw alkaline glazes because of its unusual fluxing properties. The use of 9 to 12 percent lithium carbonate permits a marked increase in the amounts of alumina, calcium, and silica that may be Used and results in a more stable glaze with sufficient alkalinity to produce vivid copper blues and other typically alkaline colors. Lithium stearate is used as a grease in airplane engines because of its ability to withstand wide changes in temperature. In view of its great affinity for nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, and silicon, lithium has an excellent scavenging action on molten metals. It forms stable nonmetallic compounds of low specific gravity or gases that are eliminated at pouring temperatures. Lithium is generally added to the melt in the form of a lithium-calcium alloy consisting of 50 percent of each ingredient or as an alloy of 98 percent copper and 2 percent lithium. The lithium-calcium alloy added to cast iron before pouring, acts as a scavenger and increases the fluidity of the melt. This alloy also is said to increase the corrosion-resistant properties of stainless steel alloys and to improve their polishing qualities.

Jan 1, 1948

By Oliver Bowles

[Simple systematic accounting that adequately records all transactions has long been regarded as essential to the welfare of any business enterprise. Some of the defects that detract from the prosperity of the slate industry are attributable to a lack of effectiveness in cost keeping. This condition has promoted the United States Bureau of Mines to make a detailed study of accounting methods for the slate industry, and to present for consideration a system of accounts, which it is believe would enable the industry to attain more economical management and operation if accepted by a fair proportion of its important units. The method of accounting presented herein has been worked out with the assistance of leading slate producers and the recommendations are tentative and are submitted in this form as a means of developing constructive criticism. Believing that cooperative effort in this, as in many ether problems will bring the most enduring benefits to the industry as a whole, the writer urges that the cost earnest consideration be given to this vital problem now facing the slate industry.]

Jan 1, 1929