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Mining has long been an important activity for the people of Australia . The Aboriginals used rocks and minerals in their culture many thousand years before European settlement. It was not until 1840 that silver-lead ore was discovered in the Mount Lofty Ranges , and developed as Australia's first metalliferous mine. The mining industry contributes significantly to all aspects of the Australian economy, generating substantial employment opportunities, investment and income, export earnings and royalties for Governments. While the mining industry in South Australia is small by comparison with Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales, it is nevertheless a very important industry in the State.   With the discovery of the world's third largest Cu-Au-U-Ag resource at Olympic Dam in 1975, the State saw a period of intense exploration activity through the early to mid-1980s. However, failure to locate additional world class deposits saw a dramatic reduction in exploration activity during the late 1980s. A perceived lack of prospectivity was compounded by the recognition that exploration for such deposits was neither easy nor inexpensive in South Australia because more than 80% of the State is masked by surficial sand and silt.

Jan 1, 1995

Open cut mining of the Black Rock chalcocite ore started in 1963. A ground movement monitoring programme was commencing in the early stages of mining when signs of instabilityof the western wall became apparent. Eventually 100.000 cu vd, of overburden Were removed beyond the rim of the western wall in an attempt to stabilize the slope. Subsequent decpenlug and mining till the final batter angle of 45 resulted in deterioration and mining was stopped 38 ft short in the ulltimte design deplh of 520 ft.Investigations showed that the geology of the western wall , was a major factor in the instability of this wall. A block jointed model was made 10 illustrate some of the pehomena observed. Quallatative agreement was found between the model deformation and the field measurements obtained.The results of the monitoring programme clearly show the value of this work In respect to the conlrol of the mining operatIon...

Jan 1, 1968

Solid. dense, air-cooled slag can fulfil most, if not all, the functions of natural stone for civil engineering purposes. The value of pumice, also, has long been appreciated, and processes for the manufacture of similar synthetic material for light-weight concretes and insulating fills have been developed in past years.Foamed slag is, in effect, blast furnace pumice and is often referred to on the European continent as metallurgical pumice. It is made by the treatment of molten blast furnace slags with a critical quantity of water during which process the slag cools and expands into a sponge-like mass. The connection between foamed slag and air-cooled slag is also considered and a basis for density control given.All blast furnace slag cannot be foamed to give a product which would comply with B.S.S.877; 1939 Foamed Blast Furnace Slag. A large proportion of the total output of molten slag lacks the necessary inherent properties. This investigation attempts to discover the conditions necessary for the production of foamed slag capable of meeting the British specification.EARLIER WORKIt was generally accepted (Parker, 1951; Gallai-Hatchard, 1955) that the spongy structure of foamed slag was caused mechanically by steam trapped in the slag when it was poured into water. It was assumed that slags which would not foam would not trap steam, because their viscosities and surface tensions were unsatisfactory, on account of temperature and/or composition. The earliest systematic investigation was made by Frisak (1923) who attempted to establish a limiting chemical composition for foamable slags. He decided that foamable slags covered most blast furnace slag compositions on the basis of silica, alumina, and lime, and further "that the replacement of lime by magnesia up to 15 per cent has no noteworthy effect on foamability, that moderate quantities of alkalis are not deleterious, that sulphur raises the foamability and that MnO is only deleterious in the presence of 1...

Jan 1, 1963

By I Clark, S C. Dominy

Bulk sampling programs are typically applied in coarse gold mineralised systems to verify resource/reserve grades. In recent years, there have been controversies surrounding some results of underground bulk sampling exercises compared to the predictions using diamond drill data. Just how realistic is it to predict 100 t lots from drilling that was designed to model blocks of several thousand tonnes? This study looks at the variation of relatively small units within larger planned mining units and compares some of the geostatistical techniques which purport to provide tools for such studies. Relative difficulty of application, computer timings and summaries of results will be used to illustrate the likely variation in bulk sampling units as opposed to mining units and large-scale planning units. A case study based on publicly available data from a gold project in North America is presented. A simplistic and unconditional geostatistical simulation model demonstrated that up to 50 per cent of a relatively high-grade mining block could show as uneconomic low-grade subblocks. A subsequent study will consider a similar demonstration using uniform conditioning. Erroneous impressions of early sampling results can lead to unsupported prejudgements of the final results. Bulk sampling programs require detailed planning based on ore characteristics, where protocols must fit the mineralisation type. Any program requires definition of aims and data quality objectives across grade, geological, geotechnical and geometallurgical parameters.CITATION:Clark, I and Dominy, S C, 2017. Underground bulk sampling, uniform conditioning and conditional simulation – unrealistic expectations?, in Proceedings Eighth World Conference on Sampling and Blending , pp 3–20 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2017

The reactions between molten aluminium and cryoIite have been determined from a material balance of all components involved in the process. The interpretation of results were supported by x-ray diffraction studies of the evolved vapours, quenched electrolyte samples, and side-reaction products.The most important reaction involves the formation of both Na2F (sodium subfluoride) and chiolite in the fused electrolyte. The Na2F accelerates vaporization of the melt. Some AIF (aluminium monofluoride) may also be formed but the proportion of this is much less than for the former subvalent compound.

Jan 1, 1968

A computerised cataloguing system for geological specimens is described. The catalogue is designed for use with a compactus-type storage system. The information stored in the catalogue for each specimen includes the type of specimen, locality information in terms of standard ~ap sheets and descriptive location, geological age, stratIgraphy, and specimen descriptions. The catalogue can be interrogated at any level of detail on the basis of any combination of these specimen parameters.Other information stored for each specimen 'is the compactus address, collection date, reference information and the type of analyses performed on that specimen:Any mterrogatlon produces a listing of those specimens which satisfy the search criteria.

Jan 1, 1974

The history of zinc production in Australia is outlined including attempts to make zinc electrolytically at Cockle Creek, N.S.W. in the last century, the use of horizontal retorts at Cockle Creek and Port Pirie, South Australia, production by electrolysis at Risdon, Tasmania and at Port Pirie using zinc oxide fumed from lead blast furnace slag and production by the Imperial Smelting process at Cockle Creek. Developments in the electrolytic process are described including those in roasting, acid manufacture, leaching, purification, electrolysis, melting and casting. The Imperial Smelting process technology is also outlined. In both processes global technology is reviewed, including important Australian contributions.

Jan 1, 1986

COMPRESSED air is held in high esteem by the mining engineer as a medium for the transmission of power. The transmission, however, is accompanied by a high percentage of loss. Of the total work done by the steam cylinder'in compressing the air inthe air cylinder, less than 50% is ultimately utilized by the machines underground. These losses are due to its essential and inherent properties as a gas. One of the sources of loss is that due to transmission through the pipes which distribute the air from the receiver to the various places where it is used. As the capacity and economic design of air-compressing plant are influenced by this source of loss, it may be of interest to give an outline of how estimates may readily be made'in practice of thediameter of pipes, quantity of air discharged, and the drop in pressure occasioned.In hydraulics we have a general formula given M Rankine's "Civil Engineering" :It was suggested, the writer believes, in the first instance by D'Arcy, that this formula could be made to apply to an elastic...

Jan 1, 1918

By J L. Mauk

The Gladstone Hill area hosts epithermal veins similar to those at Martha Hill, which is less than one kilometre away. There are several vein types in the Gladstone Hill area including (1) pyrite-marcasite, (2) quartz, (3) base metal sulfide, and (4) calcite. Pyrite veinlets formed first, whereas the quartz and carbonate veins formed later. The base metal sulfide vein occurs at depth and is predominantly comprised of quartz and chlorite intimately intergrown with pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and rare chalcopyrite. Platy calcite and massive calcite veinlets were the last vein types to form. Several vein textures occur in the Gladstone Hill area, including colloform and crustiform banding, lattice-bladed, zonal, comb, massive and feathery textures. Crustiform banded veins are the dominant texture and contain variable gold-silver grades. Colloform banded veins consist of ubiquitous quartz and minor chalcedony with gold grades as high as 60 g/t. The lattice-bladed texture forms from the deposition of calcite, which has been replaced in many samples by quartz, indicating that boiling and later cooling has taken place. Unreplaced platy calcite only occurs at deeper levels (>300 m). Zonal and comb textures are preserved in quartz and late-stage amethyst veins. Feathery textures within quartz are commonly associated with breccias and some colloform banding, and with significant Au-Ag grades.   The homogenisation temperatures (Th) of primary and secondary inclusions in quartz, amethyst and platy calcite range from 166 to 274¦C, with salinities <1.3 wt% NaCI equiv. The presence of vapor-dominated inclusions and primary fluid inclusions in platy calcite suggests that boiling occurred intermittently throughout deposition. The veins formed under a relatively flat lying paleowater table that occurred 280 - 300 m above sea level. The fluids involved in vein formation were alkali chloride in composition and low in CO2.

Jan 1, 2001

By N H. Jansen, H L. Bridgwater

Field portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and near infrared (NIR) instruments are proven technologies in the minerals industry. The in-field results of these instruments can add value early in the project life, leading to cost-effective decision-making compared to their equivalent laboratory based techniques. However, in order to add value to a project, it is crucial that the instruments are employed correctly.Orientation studies should be carried out prior to initiating a sampling program to achieve the highest level of quality assurance and control for the results. Hence, an appropriate sampling workflow begins with considering what outcomes are required, including level of precision, accuracy, reliability for elements and minerals of interest, and sampling errors. The workflows proposed include soil sampling and reverse circulation and diamond drilling sampling techniques, and laboratory based techniques. They are practical and flexible workflows using available portable XRF and NIR technologies that can be applied to current sampling and drilling methods.The combined technologies have the ability to create large, integrated geochemical and mineralogical data sets that can provide cost savings for every stage of the mining chain from exploration to prefeasibility, mineral processing and environmental remediation.CITATION:Jansen, N H and Bridgwater, H L, 2017. Proposed workflows for portable X-ray fluorescence and near infrared instruments for soil and drill hole sampling, in Proceedings Eighth World Conference on Sampling and Blending , pp 219–228 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2017

A study of the swelling behaviour of a single batch of high-grade iron ore pellets during hydrogen reduction in a fixed bed showed that the extent of swelling is governed by the nucleation and growth of crystalline iron protuberances from the wüstite grains. Over the reduction temperature range 650 to 1000°C, it was found that substantial degrees of swelling can occur at temperatures in excess of 850°C, and significant variations in the swelling behaviour of individual pellets from different bed levels are observed under these conditions.The results are discussed in terms of a recent swelling theory and shown to be in general agreement.

Jan 1, 1978

A massive cobalt-containing pyrite orebody occurs in banded albite-quartz-biotite rocks at Thackaringa, some 30 km SW of Broken Hill. Because of the world-wide shortage of cobalt during the late 1970s, serious consideration was given to the development of a suitable flow-sheet to recover the cobalt from this ore. Details of a pressure leaching process in which more than 90 per cent of the cobalt is extracted from a pyrite concentrate are presented.

Jan 1, 1983

Modem mineral exploration and development takes place within a data-rich context underpinned by a wide range of data acquisition, processing and interpretation technologies. This leads to requirements for consistent and explicit methods by which the relative risks - or success probabilities - of exploration programs can be assessed and communicated. Bayesian risk assessment methods are outlined which provide a starting point for this more rigorous approach to exploration investment.   Effective governance of information technologies becomes a core function of the modem competitive Board. As such it becomes a component of any business audit and any assessment of the quality and success potential of a company. Limited data however suggest that the average Board may be under-represented in this increasingly critical skill area.

Jan 1, 1997

By D Kepert, M Absalom, N Nitschke, C Fowers

The discovery of the Nyidinghu Iron Ore Deposit totalling 2.46 Bt of resource continues FortescueÆs highly successful exploration record of discovering multi-billion tonne deposits under cover with little to no surface expression. Since inception in 2003 Fortescue have discovered and delineated the Christmas Creek and Cloudbreak deposits in the Chichester Range totalling 3.38 Bt and 3.25 Bt in the Solomon region. Together with other deposits Fortescues resource portfolio now approximates 10 Bt of hematite - goethite mineralisation.The Nyidinghu deposit is situated on the southern margin of the Fortescue Valley, 35 km south of FortescueÆs Cloudbreak mining operations on the north margin of the valley. Nyidinghu comprises approximately 70 per cent BID martite - goethite mineralisation hosted by the Brockman Iron Formation and 30 per cent CID beneath alluvial outwash of the Weeli Wolli Creek in to the Fortescue Valley. Minor DID mineralisation occurs at the deposit margins.BID mineralisation is strongly controlled by the pre-existing NE/SW trending Weeli Wolli Fault system and bounded to the north by the Poonda Fault. Both fault systems are interpreted to have had a long and complex history commencing pre Ophthalmian Orogeny (ca 2.2 Ga) and remaining intermittently active through the Proterozoic.CID at Nyidinghu is the downstream continuation of the combined Weeli Wolli/Marillana CID palaeochannel system being mined by Rio Tinto and BHP Billiton at Yandicoogina and Yandi, respectively.Exploration commenced in August 2010 with the inaugural resource announcement of 1 Bt being made just six months later. To date over 1700 RC and 85 diamond core holes have been drilled forming the basis for the resource of 2.46 Bt and ongoing feasibility studies. Current exploration activities continue to delineate new mineralisation at Nyidinghu with an ultimate target tonnage of 3 Bt.CITATION:Fowers, C, Kepert, D, Absalom, M and Nitschke, N, 2013. Discovery, geology and structural setting of the Nyidinghu iron ore deposit, Hamersley Province, Western Australia, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2013 , pp 81-90 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 12, 2013

By Orr C. W

Continuing the systematic investigation of the influence of elements on the properties of lead(1). If the effects of additions of copper (up to 0.3%) on Port Pirie lead have now been determined in so far as creep rate is concerned.The results in the present paper contain also a survey of the influence of copper on the micro-structure of lead, a feature which has not appeared in the previous papers of this series. Further, it has now become known that creep is but little related to the more usually determined properties such as hardness and tensile strength. Since, however, these properties are of considerable importance in connection with the fabrication and use of this metal. Brinell hardness determinations have also been made and are here included.It is becoming more and more realised also that to be useful, creep data should refer to stresses of the order of those used in practice. This is due to the fact that as soon as deformation takes place, the properties of the metal are automatically changed. Lead does, of course, creep during industrial use, and probably (in lead chamber construction for example) extensions of the order of 5%...

Jan 1, 1938

The geologist is often called upon to give judgment on the possibilities of reviving a former mining field presumably worked out as far as the evidence then available indicated. From time to time, scarcity and consequent high prices of metals has led to there-examination of many old fields. The possibility of resuming investigation on them where the practical miner ceased work, even where he had the aid of the trained geologist, has long since disappeared.Means of access to mines have been removed and water fills the workings. Hence an indirect mode of attack becomes essential.This method depends mainly on past history, and may be described as a reaching out by faith supported by shrewd guessing from the known to the unknown. Apart from whatever general intelligent observations may be made in situ of the evidence of former mining activity, the method depends largely on the examination of the past history of the field as revealed in the official records, company reports, plans of underground workings, local newspaper accounts, and the testimony of practical miners formerly employedon the field, the' reliability of which has to be carefully sifted. The matter derived from the examination of these sources must next be rigorously collated and correlated where possible. When the review of all individu!1l features and aspects has been completed, tentative and speculative conclusions may be drawn which, though not verifiable before the event, will usually prove to be more serviceable guides in exploratory operations than mere "blind stabbing."As an actual illustration of what is involved in the mode of procedure outlined above, the following is the description of an investigation in which the writer took part.In 1937, during the course of the Commonwealth Aerial, Geological and Geophysical Survey of Northern Australia, a detailed geological investigation was undertaken of the Croydon gold field, situated near the south-eastern. extremity of the Gulf of Carpentaria in North Queensland.The history of the field briefly is as follows: It was discovered in 1885, reached its peak of production 1896, declining thereafter till 1906, when operations ceased. The total production was about 1,000,000 ounces of gold bullion, containing approximately 40 per cent. of silver. The gold bullion was won from flat-dipping quartz reefs, which yielded an average of 2.oz. to the ton, and the maximum depth to which production occurred was 500 feet. Subsequent prospecting below this depth failed to locate further ore.In consequence of the inaccessibility of the mines and the almost total masking of the' surface by alluvium, the investigation of future possibilities became largely an. office ,study, which was conducted under the following headings:-1. Recording of factual data of each mine separately.

Jan 1, 1950

The ore milled from the Lead Lode of The Zinc Corporation leases consists of a fairly granular mixture of galena, marmatite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, and lollingite with a gangue association of calcite, quartz, bustamite, rhodonite, mangan-hedenbergite, garnet, fluorite, mangal1o-calcite and apatite. The silver content of the ore occurs in three minerals-tetrahedrite, dyscrasite, and pyrargyrite, the last two mentioned occurring in microscopic association only. Other metallic and gangue minerals are also present in this complex mineralogical association, but do not influence the milling operations. Fortunately, the silver minerals favour the galena and chalcopyrite as their host minerals, thus facilitating the recovery of both copper and silver in the lead concentrate. The ore from the Lead Lode assays from 14-18% lead; 3·0-4·5 oz. silver per ton, and 9·5-12·0% zinc.A parallel lode, known as the Zinc Lode, is well developed in The Zinc Corporation leases. This lode assays from 6-8% lead, 1·5 oz. silver per ton, 18-25% zinc with a siliceous gangue. The common Lead Lode gangue minerals-ealcite, rhodonite, bustamite-are very rare in present underground exposures. No metallurgical work was done on this ore during the pilot plant operations.The aim in the milling process is to produce: 1. A lead concentrate with the maximum economic recovery of lead, silver, gold, copper and antimony, and minimum zinc content.2. A zinc conc,entrate with the maximum economic recovery of zinc, cadmium, and cobalt, and minimum iron, arsenic and fluorine content.3. A waste residue containing sufficient granular material to be utilized as underground fill.In considering the economics of the milling practice the above three requirements plus consideration of the tariffs submitted by the purchasers of concentrates were the deciding factors in the evolution of the present milling practice.Towards the end of 1924 The Zinc Corporation Limited added to and adapted the old zinc tailings plant for the treatment of 5,000 tons of crude ore per week. This plant, which operated until January, 1936, was in general principles similar to the standard Broken Hill methods of ore concentration, whereby the galena was recovered by the gravity concentration methods of Hgging and tabling with selective flotation concentration of the residual galena and marmatite. One important difference from other Broken Hill plants was that the primary grinding of the jig tailing was performed with flint-loaded mills operating in closed circuit with revolving screens. Two primary grinding sections were installed, each...

Jan 1, 1941

By Poi G, Madgwick J. C, Davis P, Pannowitz D, Cho D, MacKay B, Chan S. M, Varga R. A, Chun U

Periodic dilute sulphuric acid treatment ofstill, batch-fed, molassesenriched, microaerobic, manganese-dioxide-Ieaching microbial cultures led to marked improvements over untreated cultures. Percentage Mn++ recoveries increased (7X), rate of Mn++ formation improved (3X) and yields of Mn++ per molasses use were more economical (5 X). The yield in terms of molasses used improved with decreasing sugar used (eg 1.17 g Mn++/gram molasses at 0.2 per cent molasses (w/v) feed and 24 per cent (w/v) pulp density MnO2 tailings). The most effective Mn++ leaching in terms ofpercentage recovery (97 per cent) and rate ofleaching (46 mg Mn++/day) was at 0.5 per cent molasses (w/v) and 14 per cent pulp density (w/v) MnO2 tailings.

Jan 1, 1986

Process Study on Some Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn Polymetallic Ore in South China

Sep 13, 2010

By Gupta R. C

Direct reduction of iron ore by solid reducing agents have been studied extensively and summarised by several authors (Otsuka and Kunii, 1969; Abraham and Ghosh, 1979; Frauhan, 1977; Rao, 1971; Kawasaki, Sanscainte and Walsh, 1962; Ghosh, 1970; Rao, 1979). While studying the reduction behaviour, it is generally agreed that the reduction occurs via gaseous intermediate, generated by carbon gasification reaction which involves mass transfer, heat transfer nucleation and growth, etc through a) reduction reaction occurring at solid reductant, and b) reduction reaction occurring at solid iron oxides, thus making the overall reduction process very complex in terms of clearly defining the reduction kinetics of the system. In addition to this, practical difficulties like correctness of reaction temperature, (Seaton, Foster and Velasco, 1983) difficulties in isothermal temperature studies of reduction, difficulties in monitoring the reduction process while using gaseous reductants and separation of reduction by volatile matter from overall reduction process make the reduction kinetics more complex (Misra).

Jan 1, 1999