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By E. R. Smith

ANALYSIS of the requirements for gun perforation equipment suitable for penetrating casing and cement showed that these points would be involved: (1) Powder charges electrically detonated under high fluid lieads and at remote distances. (2) Selective firing of sliots in sequence. (3) Sufficient velocity for the bullet to penetrate at least two strings of seamless casing and all cement beyond the strings. (4) Heat-treatment of steels to withstand great pressures and penetration. (5) Esclusiorl of fluid under extremely high hydrostatic pressure. (6) Stranded steel wire line acting as weight - suspending and current - carrying medium. (7) Firing controls operated above the surface. (8) Determining gun depth and suspended weight by means of the wire line. (9) Portability for field use.

Jan 1, 1936

By T. A. Rickard

The Cripple Creek district occupies a cluster of foot-hills on the south side of Pike's Peak and is a portion of an extensive, though uneven, plateau which unites the eastern range of the Rocky mountains with the Sangre de Cristo. It is essentially a small volcanic area, of about 20 square miles, amid the granite of the Front range. But though, when regarded as a rich mining district, it may be considered as an isolated area,* yet, geologically, it is, as Whitman Cross has pointed out, only an outlying portion of a much larger volcanic region, which stretches to the south and west, around Silver Cliff and the Rosita hills, forming the picturesque country cut by the deep cañons of the Arkansas river and its tributaries. The mines are situated amid a volcanic complex, consisting of tuffs and breccias which have been penetrated by an extensive system of dikes and other intrusive masses. The prevailing formation is an andesite breccia, which lies upon the worn surface of the granite and fills the deep basin around a volcanic vent. The breccia, since its deposition, has been broken into by several eruptions of phonolite and, later still, by a series of thin dikes of basalt and other allied rocks of a highly basic composition. The successive sedimentary formatione which, elsewhere in Colorado, lie upon the basal granite, are not represented in the district; whatever sediments were laid down before the volcanic period must have been removed by erosion, and there is very little evidence which affords a datum-line whereby the geological age of the volcanic eruptions can be determined. Whit-

Jan 1, 1901

By G. Caetani, E. Burt

Jan 1, 1907

By R. G. Jones, W. L. Kinney, R. E. Schilson, R. S. Wilson, G. A. Clark, H. Suralo

This paper discusses the results of the Fry conventional or cocurrent in situ combustion test, which was conduct-ed in a 3.3-acre inverted five-spot. The depth of the formation was between 880 and 936 ft; the oil had a specific gravity of 28.6° APl and a viscosity of about 40 cp at the reservoir temperature of 65°F. Preceding the combustion test, air injection tests were conducted which, in conjunction with geological studies, were used to evaluate the characteristics of the reservoir. Combustion was initiated on Oct. 13, 1961, with ignition being accomplished by a 40 kw electrical heater. The test phase of the project ended on Oct. 1, 1963. During the test, the average air injection rate was 1,520.-000 scf/D. Throughout the test, production of all fluids— gas, oil, and water—was monitored. Cumulative oil production credited to the project was 100,586 bbl. The cumulative air-oil ratio was 11,500 scf/bbl oil, and the oxygen uti1ization efficiency was 87 per cent. INTRODUCTION The Marathon Oil Co. conducted a successful in situ combustion test, beginning Aug. 22, 1961, at the Fry unit, Crawford County, 111. The purpose of the project was to test the feasibility of cocurrent in situ combustion as a means of oil recovery in the Fry type reservoir. Interest in in situ combulstion as an oil recovery tool has been stimulated mostly by the existence of large reserves of heavy viscous crudes with low expected recovery, usually less than 10 per cent. These are the so-called unrecoverable reserves, and most combustion tests to date have been conducted in this type of reservoir.1-4 In contrast, the Fry combustion test was conducted in a reservoir with a relatively high gravity oil having a relatively low viscosity. This paper discusses the performance of the test. The geology of the reservoir and the field operations are discussed in separate papers.5 TEST SITE The Fry combustion test was carried out in a 3.3-acre inverted five-spot portion of a lenticular body of Robinson sandstone. Net sand was 50 ft thick, porosity averaged 19.7 per cent, oil saturation was 68 per cent of pore volume, and water saturation was 20 per cent of pore volume. The oil in place was estimated at 1,040 bbl/acre-foot, or 171,600 bbl within the 3.3-acre pattern. The water in place was 326 bbl/acre-foot, or 53,800 bbl. The oil has a specific gravity of 28.7° API and a viscosity of 40 cp at the reservoir temperature of 65°F. AIR INJECTION PERFORMANCE Air injection took place in two phases, the phases separated by ignition of the reservoir. In the pre-ignition phase, air injection tests were conducted in the summers of 1960 and 1961. These indicated that the Fry reservoir was confined, and a high return rate of injected air could be expected. This proved to be an outstanding characteristic of the project, as cumulative gas production was 95.3 per cent of the air injected. The difference between the cumulative air injected and the total gas produced can be largely accounted for by the quantity of air stored in the reservoir. An estimated 16 X 10 cf of air remained in the burned-out portion of the reservoir and an indeterminate amount of gas was stored in the unburned but pressurized reservoir. Hence, a complete material balance of gases would account for nearly 100 per cent of the air injected. At times during the test, the daily gas production rate was 98 per cent of the daily air injection rate. Fig. 1 presents the air injection history of the Fry com-

Jan 1, 1966

By William E. Ford, Edward Salisbury Dana

A. Anhydrous Carbonates The Anhydrous Carbonates include two distinct isomorphous groups, the CALCITE GROUP and the ARAGONITE GROUP. The metallic elements

Jan 1, 1922

By Chandler Morse

RENEWABLE VS. NONRENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals, are the inevitable center of attention in discussions of depletion and exhaustion. Nevertheless, it may well be proper to regard some nonrenewable resources as not subject to exhaustion, and renewable resources may sometimes be treated as if they were finite stocks. Thus, the availability of nonrenewable resources is not and probably never will be known completely Chap. 2.5A, and therefore is not subject to firm predictions concerning exhaustibility. Moreover, because exploration and discovery are more or less continuous processes it is often appropriate to regard mineral supplies as flows, and to treat the estimated reserves as working capital, an inventory, continually depleted by use and augmented by discoveries.23 The aggregate economically exploitable stocks of a given mineral are seldom estimated (or estimatable) with precision, as Chap. 2.5A shows, and even when they are, forecasts concerning years of remaining life can be and often are falsified by changes in one or more of the multidimensional conditions of supply and demand; or the productive services formerly derived from an exhausted stock may continue to provided without material impairment by one or more substitutes b Conversely, the renewable resources are all subject to depletion when the rate of use exceeds the natural or induced rate of replenishment, and cases of exhaustion or near exhaustion, as through soil erosion, overcuttmg of forest lands, and overfishing, are rather common c Where exhaustion is a clear possibility the resource may either be exploited on a consciously adopted "sustainable yield" basis or be treated as an exhausting asset." In some cases, conscious treatment

Jan 1, 1976

By Paul F. Kerr

Uranium mineralization occurs in the footwall of the Sunshine vein from the 2900 to the 3700 level. Veinlets of uraninite associated with pyrite and jasper have been so extensively divided and recemented that units more than a few feet in length are seldom observed. The wall rock is St. Regis quartzite of the Belt series. The age of the uraninite, on the basis of isotopic analyses, is 750 t- 50, which agrees with geological data suggesting that phases of the Sunshine mineralization are pre-Cambrian.

Jan 5, 1953

By B. M. Loring, W. H. Baer, G. M. Carlton

It is a well known fact that age-hardening alloys remain in a supersaturated, or partially supersaturated, condition only for limited periods of time at temperatures below the solvus. In order to develop optimum properties by subjecting the quenched alloy to precipitation or age-hardening treatment at a specified temperature, it is necessary that the cooling rate be sufficiently high to maintain the required degree of supersaturation of the solid solution. In practical applications the size and shape of the specimens obviously have considerable influence on the rate of cooling and there is need for more information on the effects of various rates of cooling. Cooling rates of quenched aluminum alloys generally have been established by the type of quenching medium, the temperature of the medium and the dimensions of the specimen. Except for the work of Roth3 little quantitative information is available on the measurement of cooling rates of aluminum alloys and the significance of the influence of various cooling rates upon the mechanical properties. The purpose of the present investigation was to study the use of the Jominy test for aluminum alloys (Table I). The material for this investigation consisted of extruded rods 1 1/4 to 136 in. in diam. The chemical compositions were as follows: The modified L-type Jominy specimen with dimensions shown in Fig I was selected as the most convenient means for obtaining a wide range of cooling rates. The standard Jominy specimen was not satisfactory because its cooling rate was not sufficiently high. The four flat surfaces machined at right angles along the length of the L-type specimen to a depth of 0.015 in. facilitated the hardness measurements. The specimens were machined from the extruded stock with no intermediate forging. New specimens were used for each aging experiment. The specimens were given solution treatments of 2 hr duration at recommended temperatures in a Hoskins furnace (Table 2). The temperature of the furnace was maintained constant to 3°C. No protective atmosphere was necessary because the thin film of oxide that formed on the surface of the specimens had no effect on the hardness measurements. AT

Jan 1, 1949

By D. J. Jr. McAdam

RESULTS of a general survey of corrosion-fatigue phenomena at the Naval Engineering Experiment Station were presented in five previous papers.1-5 In these papers references were given to the work of Haigh in 1917.6 The five papers mentioned gave a general survey of the behavior of metals when tested to failure under simultaneous corrosion and cyclic stress. As a result of this survey the fourth paper gave a tentative analysis of the corrosion-fatigue process. According to this analysis, if the initial stress is below the endurance limit but above the corrosion-fatigue limit, the corrosion-fatigue process is divided into two periods. The first period is the formation of pits. As the initial stress is below the endurance limit, the pitting is assumed to be due to corrosion, not to fatigue. The corrosion pitting, however, is not the ordinary pitting of stressless corrosion, but is an accelerated pitting due to the effect of the cyclic stress on the corrosion. As the pit progresses, both the actual stress and the effective solution pressure increase. The increase of actual stress is due to increasing stress concentration at the bottoms of the pits. The increase of effective solution pressure is due to the increase of actual stress. The mutual intensification of stress and solution pressure continues until the actual stress at the bottoms of the pits surpasses the endurance limit. The second period of corrosion-fatigue then begins. In this period the process is merely fatigue accelerated by the corrosion. The cracks advance at a continually accelerated rate until the specimen breaks.

Jan 1, 1930

At the meeting of the Board of Directors held on October 25, the reports of the Treasurer and the Nominating and Finance Committees were received. Thirty-five members, seven associates, and six junior associates were elected; one change of status front junior associate to member was granted; six members were reinstated; and one resignation was accepted. An extension of' time was granted to fourteen members. The dues of forty-seven members were suspended on account of their being in active service. The application for formation of a Houghton Section was granted and the president was authorized to appoint a committee on organization. The courtesies of the Institute were extended to visiting engineers of France, Great Britain and Italy who are at present in the country on war missions. Votes of thanks were extended to the Committees of the .Milwaukee meeting. The proposed Survey of Engineering Organizations by Engineering. Foundation was approved. The Secretary was authorized to publish in the Bulletin an appeal from the American Ouvroir Funds. A petition signed by 110 members of the-Institute to change the name of the Institute was presented. Treasurer George C. Stone resigned on account of contemplated absence from the city, and George D. Barron was elected Treasurer in his place. Mr. Alexandre Gouvy, a distinguished French engineer, then addressed the Board.

Jan 12, 1918

By Bradley Stoughton

As a part of the systematic study of the alloys of iron under the auspices of the Engineering Foundation, and preliminary to the commencement of comprehensive work on this larger subject, the authors have undertaken an investigation of the available literature dealing: with the alloys of iron and silicon. The purpose is to collect all the data in English and foreign languages and present them in two mono-graphs, one of a more scientific and the second of a more industrially useful nature. Of course, a great deal of information upon the constitution of the iron-silicon alloys was found specificially upon the changes of phase in the equilibrium diagram and the different phases present, such as solid solution, chemical compounds (iron silicides), etc. While no extended research was contemplated in the particular study undertaken, nevertheless the data collected proved to be so contradictory in many respects that a simple study of some of the outstanding problems involved in the constitution and equilibrium diagram was undertaken Because research was not a primary object of the work, and also because of the extreme industrial importance of the silicon alloys between 0.80 and 14 per cent. silicon, and finally because of the unsatisfactory state of knowledge existing as to these alloys, the experimental investigation was limited entirely to alloys with less than 10 per cent. silicon.

Jan 1, 1930

By J. W. Pamplin

SOME 40 miles east of Tampa is the center of the Florida pebble phosphate deposits. These are of Pliocene age and consist of several members of the Bone Valley formation.' Physically the phosphate-bearing formation, locally called the “matrix," varies in thickness from nothing to about 25 ft., usually averages 10 ft., and consists mainly of clay, quartz and phosphate pebble, the latter particles varying in size from colloidal to one inch diameter. The pebbles range in color from dark gray, through white, to cream, and in hardness from that which must be broken with a hammer to that which can be scratched with the fingernail. They assay from 66 to 80 per cent bone phosphate of lime (called "B.P.L." in the trade) or tricalcium phosphate (Ca3P2O8) and are secondary apatites. They form from 15 to 50 per cent by weight of the matrix. Over the matrix lies a varying thickness (5 to 40 ft.) of overburden composed of quartz and clay. Briefly, mining consists of two operations2 in open pits about 200 ft. wide by ½ mile or more in length. In the first step overburden is removed by large electric draglines at the rate of about 700 cu. yd. per hour. This is followed closely by hydraulic mining of the matrix at the rate of about 300 cu. yd. per hour. This matrix yardage is moved from an improvised sump in the floor of the pit to an ore-dressing plant, some- times a mile distant, by one, two or three "pit-cars" (pumping units) working on a 12-in. pipe line called the "rock line" to distinguish it from the high-pressure water line feeding the hydraulic giants, which is known as the “hydraulic line." This 700 yd. of overburden and 300 yd. of matrix-1000 yd. in all- amounts to about 1500 tons of material moved each hour. The over- burden is dumped into the mined-out pit alongside the pit being mined. The matrix moves to the ore-dressing plant at the rate of about 7 ½ long tons in 4000 gal. of water per minute-a ratio of approximately one to two by weight, or one to six by volume. This constitutes the "mill heads," but in the pebble district it is called the "matrix."

Jan 1, 1938

By T. A. Rickard

The earlier paper (Trans., xx., 463) describing this Victorian mining district, to which the present is supplementary, was mainly confined to the consideration of the "saddle-reefs," as scientifically the most interesting and economically the most important of the

Jan 1, 1893

By A. H. Rhoades, D. T. King, R. J. Gray

Tests and methods of detecting oxidized coal are studied. Particular emphasis is placed on the microscopically discernible changes that accompany the chemical and physical changes affecting the technological properties of coal during oxidation. Coal samples were used from the low-volatile Pocahontas No. 3 Seam, McDowell County, W.V., and from the high-volatile Cedar Grove Seam, Mingo County, W.V. Tests conducted include: carbonization, free-swelling index, phase inversion, froth flotation, Gieseler plasticity, oxygen by difference and by neutron activation, volatile matter, pH of coal slurries, alkali solubility, and electrostatic charge.

Jan 1, 1977

PRESIDENTS DAVID THOMAS 1871 R W RAYMOND 1872-1874 A L HOLLEY1875 ABRAM S HEWITT 1876 T STERRY HUNT 1877 ECKLEY B COXE 1878 - 1879 WILLIAM P SHINN 1880 WILLIAM METCALF 1881 RICHARD P ROTHWELL 1882 ROBERY W HUNT 1883 JAMES C, BAYLES 1884-1885 ROBERT H RICHARDS 1886 THOMAS EGLESTON 1887 WILLIAM B POTTER 1888 RICHARD PEARCE 1889 ADAM S HEWITT 1890 JOHN BIRKINBINE 1891-1892 H M HOWE 1893 JOHN FRITZ 1894 J D WEEKD 1895

Jan 1, 1923

By Henry Howe

W. E. RUDER, Schenectady, N. Y.-In 1913 I presented a paper before this society on Grain Growth, and at that time it seemed to me that the only explanation for grain growth was that of critical strain. I do not think I published the photographs at the time, but I made some experiments on the effect of stretching sheets of metal. This allowed for fairly accurate determinations of the amount of cold deformation, At the time I worked-with silicon steel because one could see the change in grain growth with the naked eye. I stretched about 10-samples from 0.5 per cent. to 10 per cent., and, after heating to 1,050° C., I found that the maximum grain growth occurred at about 2 ½ per cent. cold deformation. This I designated "the critical strain" for maximum grain growth. About a year ago I talked with Prof. Jeffries, who explained to me his ideas of grain growth. It occurred to me that it would be a very easy thing to check the strain hypothesis against the strain and temperature hypothesis, if we took a certain number of these strips, strained exactly alike and heated to different temperatures; in that case the maximum grain growth ought to appear at a different percentage of deformation for each temperature. These experiments showed that there was, as Mr. Jeffries shows in his present paper, a decrease in germinative temperature with increased cold deformation. The samples were stretched from ½ to 8 per cent. and heated for 10 hr. in hydrogen. Samples were introduced into a furnace previously heated to temperature. A maximum grain growth was obtained at 5 per cent. deformation, when heated to 750° C.; at 2 ½ per cent. when heated to 800' C.; at 1 1/4 per cent., if heated at 950°C.; and at 5/8 per cent.. when heated at 1,100° C. This shows very clearly that the germinative temperature decreases with the increase in cold deformation. The growth was very much more marked, however, at the high temperature, i.e., the grain grew more rapidly and attained a much larger size than at lower temperature. In considering the photographs (Fig. A) those along the lateral edges should be ignored because.

Jan 4, 1917

By Henry Lloyd Smyth, J. Ralph Finlay

The most important area of the so-called Keewatin rocks of northern Minnesota is that which runs westerly from Lake Saganaga, near the national boundary, and finally disappears beneath the drift (or has not been farther traced), in the neighborhood of Vermilion Lake. With this belt we have a general acquaintance, extending back some four years. During the past year we have had the opportunity of studying in considerable detail a small part of it, embracing an area of about 12 square miles on the south and east shores of Vermilion Lake. In this paper we desire to record our observations and conclusions, which seem to us important. II.—Literature. Outside the Minnesota Geological Survey, the list of the investigators who have studied the geology of the Vermilion Lake area is not long. Whittlesey, in 1876,* mentioned the occurrence, in the area about Vermilion Lake, of rocks resembling the Canadian Laurentian. Chester,? in 1884, described the iron-ore at Vermilion Lake as occurring in connection with jasper and quartzite, intimately bedded with the country-rock, chiefly sericite schist, and standing in a nearly vertical attitude. The Vermilion iron-bearing rocks, and those of the Mesabi range, he says, are of the same age.

Jan 1, 1896

By W. C. Ellis

NONFERROUS alloys upon which desirable properties can be conferred by heat treatment are becoming of increasing industrial importance. The alloys of copper with a constituent which has a solubility varying with temperature are materials of this character. Some of the constituents which are effective in producing a change in the mechanical properties of these alloys upon heat treatment are, according to Corson,1 nickel and silicon, iron and silicon, cobalt and silicon, and chromium and silicon. In addition to these elements, Gregg2 states that the combination of beryllium and silicon is effective in producing age-hardening characteristics in copper. The effect of these elements, however, as dispersion-hardening constituents in the copper alpha solid solutions does not seem to have been studied in any considerable detail. This paper deals with the heat treatment and properties of three alpha brasses containing 3 per cent. of nickel plus silicon in the proportion necessary to form the compound nickel silicide, Ni2Si. Some information of a preliminary nature in regard to the hardening by heat treatment of phosphor bronze containing the same percentages of nickel and silicon is included. The method of hardening the alloys, which is effective in increasing the tensile strength and proportional limit, is similar to that used in, the case of duralumin type aluminum alloys. It consists of a quench from a temperature at which the hardening constituent is in solid solution, followed by an aging at a lower temperature to precipitate the dissolved constituent in a dispersed condition. This results in an increased resistance of the alloy to deformation with an attendant improvement in the tensile properties.

Jan 1, 1929

September 1 to 6, 1918 COMMITTEE IN CHARGE Spencer Penrose, Chairman. George M. Taylor, Vice-Chairman. A. E. Carlton, Chairman. Finance Committee J. Dawson Hawkins, Secretary DENVER COLORADO SPRINGS CRIPPLE CREEK Finance Finance Thomas B. Crowe T. B. Stearns A. E. Canton , E. P. Arthur, Jr. Richard A. Parker Spencer Penrose N. S. Greensfelder T. B. Burbridge George M. Taylor A. E. Carlton. A. L. Blomfield, Treasurer B. F. Hill Arrangement I F. G. Willis Dave G. Miller Registration Norris E. Eads Frank Bulkley Loren C. Lennox 1V. E. Ryan Geo. E. Collins Horace F. Lunt Fred Jones .1. M. Tippett F. D. Smale Entertainment J. H. Haynes F. H. Bostwick Arrangement and Entertainment L. W. Lennox F. E. Shepard George M. Taylor A. L. Blomfield M. R.. Valentine Howland Bancroft J. D. Hawkins Thomas B. Crowe B. P. Morse A. E. Carlton E. P. Arthur J. G. Perry G. H. Clevenger Etienne A. Ritter Ladies Ladies , PUEBLO Mrs. T. B. Stearns, Mrs. C. M. Taylor, Mrs. C. H. Clevenger J. F. Welborn Chairman. Chairman H. B. Carpenter Mrs. C. Loughridge Mrs. S.-Penrose Mrs. A. E. Carlton L. B. Eames Mrs. H. Bancroft Mrs. J. D. Hawkins Mrs. A. L. Blomfield F. Robinson Mrs. G. Bancroft Mrs. L. C. Lennox Mrs. J. M. Tippett . Mrs. W. D. Leonard Mrs. H. F. Lunt -Mrs. E. C. van Diest Mrs. C. Chase Mrs. E. A. Ritter Mrs. AV. Strieby Mrs. F. H. Bostwick Mrs. L. S. Harner Mrs. C. L. Bailey Mrs. F. Bulkley Miss F. Dickerman Mrs. E. P. Shove Mrs. C. L. Tutt Mrs. F. C. Peck Mrs. F. D. Pastorius

Jan 10, 1918

By J. W. Spretnak, R. Speiser

IT has been suggested that boron in steel may form a film entirely around the austenite grain and that this film is responsible for the boron hardenability effect. In this connection, it is of interest to examine some of the ramifications of the concentration range of boron usually employed in hardenable steels, namely 0.0005 to 0.003 pct in a grain size range of ASTM grain size No. 1 through No. 10. The ratio of the iron to boron atoms and the number of unit cells of y iron per boron atom are listed in Table I. Even at the highest concentration considered, there are 1600 unit cells of y iron per boron atom, assuming a uniform distribution of boron. To investigate the possibility of the boron film formation, the number of boron atoms required to cover the grain surface completely must be calculated. With some transition elements, boron crystallizes in sheets composed of equilateral hexagons very much like graphite.' The selected value for the length of a side is 1.80Å. A simple calculation shows that two boron atoms cover an area of 8.4x l0 -16 sq cm. Table II lists the number of atoms of boron required for the formation of the monatomic film and Table III lists the number of boron atoms per grain. The hypothetical cases of 100 pct and 10 pct adsorption are calculated (all boron atoms in a grain and 10 pct of all boron atoms in a grain are located at the grain surface respectively). In Table 111, all combinations of grain size and composition below and to the left of the solid line (100 pct adsorption) and the dashed line (10 pct adsorption) are excluded as to the possibility of covering the grain surface with a continuous boron film. Thus, even for 100 pct adsorption, the smaller grains can form the film only at the higher concentrations. For the best case, grain size No. 1 and 0.0030 pct B, the required degree of adsorption is 3.9 pct. The above calculations deal only with the number of boron atoms required to form a monatomic film and do not take into account the mechanism of concentration of boron at the grain surface and the possible limitations to the extent of this concentration at a constant temperature, as for example in the austenitizing process. The question next arises as to how this surface concentration can occur during an isothermal treatment. Such surface enrichment of boron must occur through the phenomenon of surface adsorption, i.e., the concentration of solute atoms in solid solution in the vicinity of the surface without precipitation. A solute atom will tend to concentrate at the grain boundary if it reduces the interfacial tension. The possibility of adsorption effects involving both boron and carbon in iron has been discussed.' In general, the tendency for a sol-

Jan 1, 1954