Search Documents

By Ralph H. Espach

In the spring of 1943, when it was evident that the Tensleep sandstone in the Elk Basin field, Wyoming and Montana, held a large reserve of petroleum, Bureau of Mines engineers obtained samples of oil from the bottom of nine wells and analyzed them for such physical characteristics as the volumes of gas in solution, saturation pressures or bubble points, shrinkage in volume caused by the release of gas from solution, expansion of the oil with decrease in pressure, and other related properties. The composition of the gas in solution in the oil was studied. The pressures and temperatures existing in the reservoir and the productivity characteristics of the oil wells were determined. The data obtained indicate that the oil in the Tensleep reservoir of the Elk Basin field has unusually varying physical characteristics, such as a saturation pressure of 1,250 pounds per square inch absolute and 490 cubic feet of gas in solution in a barrel of oil at the crest of the structure, and a saturation pressure of 530 pounds per square inch absolute and 134 cubic feet of gas in solution in a barrel of oil low on the flanks. The hydrogen sulfide content of the 6a r; in solution in the oil varies from 18 percent for oil on the crest to 5 percent for oil low on the flanks of the structure. Of even greater significance is the fact that these and other variable characteristics of the reservoir oil are related to the position of oil in the structure. Many geologists and petroleum engineers have considered all the oil in a petroleum reservoir to have uniform physical characteristics and that equilibrium conditions prevailed in all underground accumulations of oil and gas. That such is not always so is borne out by the results of the study made by the writers.

Jan 1, 1951

By D. Harrington

More or less unconsciously and from sheer force of habit human beings do many things they probably would not do if the possible consequences of their acts were fully recognized and appreciated. Such carelessness ordinarily could be condoned if human life were not at stake, but it is difficult to understand why intelligent men engaged in the hazardous occupation of mining indulge with the utmost indifference in some habit or continue some custom in violation of State leas and company regulations and under circumstances that may jeopardize not only their own lives but those of scores, even of hundreds, of their fellow workers as well. The old adage that stolen sweets are the best may or nay not have some foundation, but when applied to the practice of smoking surreptitiously in a coal mine, more especially a gassy mine, it is without even remote justification. Although a relatively harmless habit in the proper environment, smoking has been the cause or suspected cause of many gas explosions and black-powder ignitions and has resulted in numerous instances of bodily injury, loss of life, and destruction of property. Likewise, many fires in both coal and metal nines, causing loss of life, have been started by smoking.

Jan 1, 1941

By H. Stuart Auvil

Twelve samples of run-of-oven coke were taken at coke plants in the United States and Canada. Sampling procedure was directed toward obtaining the highest possible degree of uniformity in the gross samples, so that variations in results caused by sampling variations were at a practical minimum. Under these conditions the standard deviation of the screen analysis test on 500-pound samples is found to range from 1.2 percent for the 1-inch screen to 4.5 percent for the 5-inch screen. At present, the A.S.T.H. standard method of test requires that results be reported to the nearest 0.1 percent. This implies a higher than actual degree of precision, and revision of the report required by the method is suggested. Much larger Samples than are generally tested are required to reduce normal testing errors to a point where they are not appreciable fractions of the total variations found in a smoothly operating plant. For example, it is deduced that over 100,000 pounds of coke must be screened to determine if ordinary day-to-day variations in screen analysis have appreciable effects on the performance of a blast furnace.

Jan 1, 1950

By John W. Walkiewicz

The U.S. Bureau of Mines has conducted studies to utilize rapid microwave heating to stress fracture ore samples. Iron ores containing hematite, magnetite, and goethite were subjected to microwave energy in batch operations at 3 kW and heated to average maximum temperatures between 840 and 940 °C. Standard Bond grindability tests showed that microwave heating reduced the work index of iron ores by 10 to 24 pct. In a microwave chamber designed to simulate a continuous throughput operation at 3 kW, the grindability of a taconite ore was improved by 13 pct at a bulk temperature of 197 °C. Because stress cracking occurred at a lower temperature, less energy was consumed. To further improve the economics of microwave fracturing, higher powers up to 16 kW were used to rapidly heat samples to relatively low temperatures in a continuous, belt-fed applicator. A significant improvement of grindability was obtained with a larger rod mill feed size in comparison to a minus 6-mesh Bond feed.

Jan 1, 2010

By Richard N. Appling

This compilation presents information obtained through investigation of manganese deposits and a reconnaissance of potential manganese-bearing areas of southwestern Oregon and Del Norte County, Calif., from October 1952 to September 1955. The report includes maps, assays, and preliminary examination data on 39 manganese deposits distributed throughout Curry, Coos, Douglas, Josephine, and Jackson Counties, Oreg., and 1 deposit in Del Norte County, Calif. On the basis of mineral content the deposits can be divided into three groups: 1 Manganese silicate deposits, manganese oxide deposits, and manganiferous iron de-posits. Generally the oxides occur along the coast in the Curry-Coos County area, the manganiferous iron deposits are in the Josephine-Douglas area, and the manganese silicates are found in both the Josephine-Douglas and Jackson County areas. The deposits are characteristically irregular in form and usually small. Most silicate and manganiferous iron deposits are in metasediments of Triassic (?) age; oxide deposits are in sediments varying in age from Jurassic to Eocene.

Jan 1, 1957

By Roy J. Greenfield

The overall purpose of this research was to improve the understanding of how the post disaster seismic location system works, what determines the signal size, what is the character of the seismic noise, how well the system can detect blows from a trapped miner, and how well the source of the blows can be located. Based on an improved understanding of the system, improvements were suggested in the seismic subarray configuration, and in the system deployment procedures. An important part of this research was to become familiar with the seismic system operation and to work with the Westinghouse Electric Corporation and MSHA personnel to modify and improve the system. To accomplish this we participated in the planning, execution, and data analysis for a number of seismic field tests. Several in-mine field tests were conducted. From these tests the capabilities of an in-mine seismic system were analyzed and specifications were made for designing an operational in-mine system. Several portions of the work done on this grant were covered in previous reports. In particular the capabilities or the presently operational surface based seismic location system has been thoroughly documented by Durkin and Greenfield (1981). Portions of the location procedures and effects of mine openings on seismic signals have also previously been published. These portions or the work will only be summarized in this final report.

Jan 1, 1982

By James Westfield

This report covers the calendar year 1953 and has been prepared and submitted in accordance with the provisions of Sec. 106(a) and Sec. 212(c) of the Federal Coal Mine Safety Act (66 Stat. 692; 30 U.S.C. Secs. 451-483). During this first full calendar year of operations under the Federal Coal Mine Safety Act, the coal-mining industry of the United States attained the best injury records in its history - improving the former best records (made in 1952) by 91 fatal and 10,020 nonfatal injuries. Whereas, the mandatory provisions of the act were intended and designed to prevent major mine disasters, apparently the effects have reached beyond the scope thereof in reducing mine accidents generally.

Jan 1, 1954

By Henry E. Hilliard

The production, use, and emission of vanadium in the United States has been traced for the year 1991. Consumption was 3,300 tons2, exports 1,285 tons, and imports 2,013 tons. About 98% of production was used in metallurgy; the remainder was consumed in chemicals, including catalysts. Total emissions to the environment in 1991 were estimated at about 3,100 tons, including emissions due to the combustion of coal and petroleum products. Emissions resulting from the production of ferrovanadium were 130 tons, and emissions from the production of steel about 6 tons. Dissipative losses, defined as losses that occurred during use or as a result of wear, were estimated to be no more than 3 tons. Disposal losses were estimated to be about 4,600 tons. Most of these losses were steel products that contained 0.1% or less vanadium and mayor may not have been recycled. When these products are recycled by the steel industry, vanadium ends up in the steelmaking slag and does not return to vanadium use cycle. Worldwide emissions due to anthropogenic and natural sources were briefly reviewed. It was concluded that industrial emissions were about three times greater than emissions from natural sources.

Jan 1, 1994

By R. K. Conrad

The Bureau of Mines conducted corrosion research to determine suitable construction materials for geothermal resource recovery plants. Weight loss, pitting and crevice corrosion, U-bend stress corrosion, and electrochemical polarization measurements were made on selected metals in brine and steam process environments produced from high-enthalpy hypersaline brine from geothermal well Magmamax No. 1 at the Salton Sea Known Geothermal Resources Area, Imperial Valley, Calif. Cadmium (and by extension cadmium coatings) and a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy were unsatisfactory because of high general corrosion rates and, in the case of aluminum, severe pitting Molybdenum and niobium (columbium) were resistant to general corrosion, pitting, and crevice corrosion, Copper alloys corroded at rates that may preclude their use in wellhead brine, The presence of iron accelerated the corrosion of the copper alloys Titanium alloys were resistant to general corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in all of the environments. They exhibited crevice corrosion in some of the brine and steam environments and Ti6A14V pitted in the brine environments. They exhibited passive behavior over a broad range of potentials. Exposure tests were conducted on a high-temperature polyphenylene sulfide thermoplastic (Ryton) in the same environments. A 40-pct-graphite fiber-reinforced Ryton composite deteriorated readily in wellhead brine and failed in all of the brine and steam process environments; Ryton coatings on 316L stainless steel were adherent and performed well.

Jan 1, 1983

By Don Steffa

Drift mining, according to California mining terminology - and it is distinctly a California development - is the blocking out and extraction (breasting) of the auriferous gravels of an ancient buried stream either through tunnels, inclines, or shafts; it is one of the minor divisions of the larger classification known as placer mining. The contribution of each of these divisions and of lode mining to the gross production of gold in California totals as follows:3 [ ] The total amount of gold recovered from the placers of California from 1848, when Marshall discovered the precious metal in the mill race at Coloma, to 1928, was $1,226,515,404. The same period saw a total gold production from all operations of $1,823,562,360.

Jan 1, 1932

1. In 2002, a total of 2,820 contracting companies reported employment at coal mines to MSHA.

Jan 1, 2004

By F. S. LOTT

Publication of the Bureau of Mines annual surveys of the capacity of petroleum refineries in the United States was suspended after the entry of the United States into World War II . The last published survey was that of January 1 , 1941 , released in April 1941 as Information Circular 7161 . The purpose of this publication is to provide comparable information with respect to crude - oil and cracking capacity on January 1 , 1947. No attempt is made at this time to bridge the gap in annual statistical series from the date of the last published survey to the present one . However , complete summary tables will be included in the succeeding survey for January 1 , 1948 .

Mar 1, 1948

By Alvin Kaufman

Geothermal plants are competitive with conventional units. A geothermal plant can produce electric energy for 6.70 mills per kwhr, compared with 6.96 mills for coal, 6.74 mills for oil, and 7.04 mills for gas. These costs include fixed and variable charges. Potential for geothermal power exists in the Western United States, Alaska, and possibly Hawaii. Assuming that the current downward trend in cost per kilowatt of coal will cease and that the relative cost of gas and oil, already trending upward, may rise considerably more, geothermal energy will be utilized where available, in producing electric energy. It will be used in California first because it is directly competitive with gas-and oil-fired installations there. A long-term appraisal is difficult because little is known about the sources of geothermal power and the electric generating capacity which the steam fields will support. However, a market for geothermal steam-generated electricity exists within the Western States.

Jan 1, 1964

By Alvin Kaufman

Geothermal plants are competitive with conventional units. A geothermal plant can produce electric energy for 6.70 mills per kwhr, compared with 6.96 mills for coal, 6.74 mills for oil, and 7.04 mills for gas. These costs include fixed and variable charges. Potential for geothermal power exists in the Western United States, Alaska, and possibly Hawaii. Assuming that the current downward trend in cost per kilowatt of coal will cease and that the relative cost of gas and oil, already trending upward, may rise considerably more, geothermal energy will be utilized where available, in producing electric energy. It will be used in California first because it is directly competitive with gas-and oil-fired installations there. A long-term appraisal is difficult because little is known about the sources of geothermal power and the electric generating capacity which the steam fields will support. However, a market for geothermal steam-generated electricity exists within the Western States.

Jan 1, 1964

By Richard L. Rains

During this study in 1983, the U.S. Bureau of Mines examined one mine and five prospects in the Greenwater Valley Wilderness Study Area (WSA). No mineral resources were identified within the WSA. Principal mineral commodities in the WSA are gold and silver with minor lead, and zinc. Two properties have significance; sample analyses indicate the Salsberry Prospect may have gold-silver-lead-zinc resources, and the Graham Jem Mine may have gold resources. The likelihood for development is greatest at the Salsberry Prospect, although the only recorded production from the study area was from the Graham Jem Mine; in 1908 less than 1 ton of gold-bearing ore valued at $25,000 per ton was produced. Gold, silver, lead, zinc, and copper minerals in the WSA are associated with rhyolite dikes and quartz veins in Precambrian gneissic rocks, commonly concentrated in sheared zones along the dikes and veins. Although known to contain silver-lead deposits elsewhere, Precambrian Noonday Dolomite sampled inside the WSA contained no significant mineral values. Much of the WSA is covered by relatively unmineralized Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks. The Bureau collected 140 rock samples at four adits, nine shafts, four trenches, and 33 prospect pits in the WSA. In 1983, 14 lone claims and one millsite within the study area were current. No patented claims, placer claims, or coal, mineral, oil and gas, or geothermal leases were in the WSA.

Jan 1, 1985

By M. J. Sapko

The pressure and flame development of the methane-air-nitrogen system was investigated in the Bureau's l2-foot-diameter sphere to define buoyancy effects and to develop relationships for predicting venting requirements. Pressure rise (?P) is defined as a function of time (t) and nitrogen dilution and is shown to deviate noticeably from the cubic law (?P = kt3), depending upon the period of combustion and the mixture composition. Corresponding flame speed (Sf) and burning velocity (Su) data are given which show that Sf is time dependent and that Na dilution has a greater effect than air dilution in inhibiting the flame propagation. The Su data agree with "accepted" values and are unique in that they are based on much larger flames than those used in other investigations. Downward propagation limits are shown to depend mainly upon buoyant forces, which can affect the burning of even stoichiometric CH4-air systems. Theoretical expressions, based on the mixture burning velocity and expansion ratio, are given for predicting the venting requirements for ignitions of hydrocarbon-air-nitrogen mixtures in spherical or cubical enclosures.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. M. Lewis, J. K. H. Ma, Y. Rojanasakul, J. Y. C. Ma, J. H. Kang, V. Castronova

"Tetrandrine is a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid which has been shown to exhibit antifibrotic activity against silicosis. Tetrandrine is characterized by its strong binding to alveolar macrophages and inhibition of particle-induced respiratory burst activity in these phagocytes. In contrast, tubocurine and tubocurarine are structurally similar to tetrandrine but exhibit little effect on fibrosis or activation of alveolar macrophages. The objective of the present study was to test the effect of tetrandrine on macrophage production of monokines in response to occupational dusts, and to determine tetrandrine's effect on monokine-medicated cell growth using a mouse thymocyte proliferation assay and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a positive control. Stimulation of alveolar macrophages by respirable silica dust resulted in a release of monokines which caused a fourfold increase in thymocyte proliferation. Coal dust, on the other hand, had no effect on macrophage production of this cytokine. Tetrandrine was found to exhibit a dose-dependent inhibition of monokine release from both silica and LPS-stimulated alveolar macrophages. In experiments where thymocytes were directly treated with tetrandrine, a dose-dependent inhibition of thymocyte proliferation was noted with both interleukin-1- (IL-1) specific and nonspecific mitogenic (concanavalin A) actions. In contrast to the inhibitory potency of tetrandrine, tubocurarine was found to have no effect on either the production of monokines by LPS-stimulated alveolar macrophages or IL-I-mediated thymocyte proliferation. These results provide a correlation between the ant:fibrotic effect of tetrandrine and inhibition of macrophage activation. INTRODUCTIONThe pathogenesis of chronic pulmonary fibrosis caused by inhalation of occupational dusts has been associated with abnormal activation of alveolar macrophages such as the release of various cytokines capable of inducing fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis. These macrophage-derived cytokines include interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factor-B (TGF-(B), macrophage derived growth factor (MDGF), and interferon [1, 2].Interleukin-1 is a major macrophage-derived cytokine that has been shown to exhibit multiple biological effects on a variety of target cells. It is known to cause leukocyte [3, 4] and endothelial cell activation [5, 6], and to affect the synthesis and maintenance of the extracellular matrix by stimulation of fibroblast proliferation [7-9], synthesis of collagens [10] and gluco-saminoglycans [11], and prostaglandin E2 production [12]. In addition, IL-1 plays an important role in the initiation of an immune response through its direct activation of lymphocytes and stimulation of the production of other cytokines, such as interferons and hemopoietic colony-stimulating factors, needed for the expression of an immune response [13]. As a major cytokine in the immune-inflammatory sequela, IL-1 is also produced by epidermal, epithelial, lymphoid, and vascular tissues after infection, injury, or antigenic challenge [14]. Agents such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), immune complexes, and particulates are known to activate the synthesis and release of IL-1 by monocytes and macrophages [15]. These substances also trigger intracellular signals leading to altered arachidonic acid metabolism. Although the mechanism is still not clear, prostaglandins have been shown to suppress IL-1 translation via the induction of cyclic adenosine-monophosphate (CAMP), whereas leukotrienes produce a positive signal for IL-1 production [13]."

Mar 1, 1992

By N. E. Hanna

The effect of small percentages of sodium chloride on the incendivity of permissible explosives was studied by the Bruceton up-and-down technique in gallery tests. Both the reduction in incendivity achieved by addition of sodium chloride and application of the test method to explosives evaluation are discussed. It is demonstrated that the up-and-down technique in gallery testing is suitable for distinguishing differences in incendivity between different explosive compositions and between lots of the same composition. The study also shows that addition of relatively small quantities of sodium chloride tends to reduce the incendivity of explosives to firedamp, but addition of sodium chloride cannot insure reduced incendivity. Any improvement attributable to the salt can be counteracted by undefined variations in the explosive. The need for experimental investigations of a number of factors that may affect the safety of permissible explosives is emphasized. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Grateful acknowledgment is made of the assistance of Roy L. Grant in analyzing for normality of distribution of the data obtained by the up-and-down methods and to Harold E. Tubbs for numerous calculations.

Jan 1, 1959

By K. A. Johnson, H. F. Yancey

"INTRODUCTION Coals vary so widely in their burning characteristics that all coals prepared for domestic stoker use cannot be burned efficiently on every type of stoker. The overfeed stoker, a large number of which are in use in the Pacific Northwest, operates satisfactorily when burning low- to high-ash, noncaking bituminous or subbituminous coals, whereas on the clinkering-type, underfeed, bituminous stoker both caking and noncaking bituminous and subbituminous coals are burned, generally with ash contents below 12 percent and ash-softening temperatures between 1,800º and about 2,600º F. Because fly ash continues to be one of the most troublesome factors in domestic underfeed stokers, noncaking coals especially must be chosen carefully with respect to size composition, particularly as regards the exclusion of excessive fines. Their formation as a result of degradation in storage handling or because of crushing in .the stoker worm will increase the fly-ash nuisence.Bituminous and subbituminous coals with higher ash-softening temperatures and, often, higher ash contents have not been able to enter the domestic stoker-coal market in the Pacific northwest because clinkers are not formed readily during clinker-type underfeed-stoker burning, especially in mild weather, and because of the labor and attendant inconvenience required in handling larger volumes of ash. The work described in this report was undertaken to enable mines producing coals of the kind described to enter the stoker-coal markets. The anthracite stoker selected was one that conveys the refuse from the ash pit of the furnace and deposits it into one of two covered, dust-tight disposal cans."

Dec 1, 1945

By Alfred L. Ransome

The consumption of slab zinc in the United States increased sevenfold in less than a half century since 1900. Therein is reflected the innate characteristics of this versatile and nearly indispensable nonferrous metal whose use has grown at more than twice the rate of industrial production. The total metal consumption was substantially stimulated during the two World War periods, which were likewise marked by notable changes in use pattern accompanied by shifts in geographic distribution. This information circular summarizes basic data collected for many years by the Bureau of Mines, but in particular presents for the 1940-45 period details derived from the comprehensive slab zinc consumption survey inaugurated in 1940. The total consumption of slab zinc has been broken down into four major categories galvanizing, brass products, rolled zinc, and zinc-base alloys -- with minor applications grouped under a fifth heading, other uses. Ex- cept for the inclusion of zinc-base alloys with other uses before 1926, the above-named segregation has been shown for the entire period 1900-45. 11- though a substantial tonnage was taken by all groups in all years, there were large shifts in the use pattern in both World War periods. In both, the Allied Powers depended heavily on the United States for zinc-bearing products, especially those required by war industrius. The departures from usual uses were, however, much more marked during the second than in the first period, mainly because the United States could not have met the tro- mendously expanded war-materiel demands had the greater slab zinc needs of a period of high industrial activity been supplied. The geography of consumption is known in detail only for 1940-45. Even in that short period, substantial shifts are observable, largely the reaction from conversion to war production in 1940-41 and reconversion to peacetime consumption in 1945. However, there is so evidence of other shifts in consumption centers that appear to reflect longer-term develop- ments.

Feb 1, 1948