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By P. M. Ambrose, C. Travis Anderson, Cresap Moss, R. S. Dean

"MANGANESE METALMethods of PreparationMethods of preparing the manganese metal that has been used in chemical and metallurgical investigations have passed through a cycle. Most of the investigations made before the turn of the century used Moissan's pyrophoric manganese. 5/ This material was made by electrolysis into a mercury cathode and distillation in vacuo. It was essentially a pure material, and investigations in which it was employed (with proper precautions against oxida¬tion) led to accurate results concerning the intrinsic behavior of metallic manganese.An early investigation of the properties of ""Manganese-by-Mercury"" was made by M. Guntz. 6/ He prepared manganese by electrolysis of a concentrated MnCl2 solution with a mercury cathode. The manganese amalgam was pressed through chamois and distilled in vacuo (2 to 3 cm. of mercury) at 200°0., slowly rising to 250°0. Guntz recognized especially the decreased reactivity of manganese with increased temperature of mercury distillation. The most careful and com¬prehensive study of manganese made by this method is that of Kuh 7/ whose work unfortunately was never published in an accessible journal.Royce and Kahlenberg 8/ studied the electrode potential of manganese made by this method."

Nov 1, 1939

By A. M. Cummings

Each mining district presents different problems as to the methods of ore extraction cad underground support, which are dependent upon the type of the ore deposit and the character of the inclosing rock. Mining costs, however, depend largely aeon the efficiency with which the methods employed underground are [applie] as well as upon the selection of the method best adapted to the physical conditions. The purpose of this paper is to present to the operator in other districts a detailed description of ho mining method used ins results obtained in tie exploitation of the bedded magnetite deposits of the Mineville district. The town of Mineville is situated in the Adirondacks, five miles west of Port Henry on Lake Champlain.

Jan 1, 1928

By J. H. East

Potash is one of the essential chemicals used in fertilizing soil deficient in natural minerals . Europe uses a large tonnage of potash in the form of easily soluble salts , and this is particularly true of those countries where the natural minerals in the soil have been exhausted owing to intensive cropping of the land . The application of potash to the soil in these countries is essential if normal crops are to be obtained ; during the war , some European countries were unable to obtain sufficient potash , and productivity of the farming areas declined seriously . • The largest -known deposits of potash in the world ; with the possible. exception of Russia , occur in Germany , and the German output of processed salts constituted about 65 percent of world production prior to the war . The German potash-plant installations are large , modern , brick and steel construction and apparently built for a planned operation of many years . Two districts produced approximately 80 percent of the German potash; the Werra -Fulda district , near Vacha , had the largest production , and the Sudharz district , near Nordhausen and Sonderhausen , was second . (Fig . 1. ) Hannover and Stassfurt were two smaller producers . Potash fertilizers are rated in terms of potassium oxide (K20 ) . The usual basis for calculation of production or application of the salt is to reduce the potash content to 40 percent K₂0 .

May 1, 1947

By Hewitt Wilson

A review is given of the nomenclature, sources, imports, statistics, common methods of preparation, and testing of mineral pigments. A description of the Deer Park-Spokane colored-clay district and the laboratory methods of preparation of these colored clays, others, and siennas follows. The mineral pigments were prepared by washing or grinding the original material as received and by calcination of the yellow ocher and brown sienna with and without manganese dioxide to produce red, brown, and black colors. These prepared powders were tested for fineness, oil absorption, and color as compared with well-known brands of commercial pigments. Similar tests were made with several basalt red clays occurring in the neighborhood of Salem, Oreg., and Kalama, Eatonville, and Clay City, Wash. The color particularly was studied, since this property is the most important commercial characteristic of the minerals. PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION Since the development of the clay industry in the Pacific Northwest, some curiosity and interest have been aroused by the red and yellow clay or ocherouslike material that has often been found associated with the commercial clay deposits. These include the red and yellow "paint pots" near Deer Park and Spokane in eastern Washington, a red clay at Clay City, another close to Eatonville in western Washington, and red basalt earths near Salem, Oreg., and along the Columbia River near Kalama, Wash. Several companies have been organized to produce pigment colors from two of these deposits but have either discontinued or never started operations.

Jan 1, 1929

By K. E. Stanfield

[Asphalt ~~d road oil ar8 the principal products manufactured from Wyor.1in~ Ilblack oilo" \r,hich, beca.use of th?lir hig.~ E\.sphal t and hig} sulfur COi.1Jce~1t, .!?re difficult e':ld costly to refine into hi?;h-gra.de motor f 101s, burning oils. and lucri ants by presont mothods. Accordin~ly. the demand for truHle asphaltic renidl urn for the construction of roade aJ1.d other uses is 3. controlling factor in the quantity of crud~ oil prod ICed. The increasiilg -u.tilization of special aST>ha.lts as ine}""Pensive bonding, in-]

Jan 1, 1941

By Leonard F. Heising

At the Groveland-mine iron ore is mined by open-pit methods and concentrated by means of spirals and flotation. A brief history of the mine and its early development is given. The ore deposit is described, with emphasis on those physical characteristics that affect the choice of mining and milling methods. Development and mining, which include breaking ground, loading, transportation, engineering, and operating control; are explained, and the milling method is described Mining and milling costs are given in percent of total cost.

Jan 1, 1963

By Donald Giroux

This report documents the design, fabrication, testing, and coal mine demonstration of a hopper-feeder-bolter during a four-phase program for the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The machine was designed to increase productivity and safety in under-ground room-and-pillar mining. It performed well as a hopper-feeder for continuous haulage during a coal mine demonstration. Testing in a simulated mine showed that the machine also has good roof bolting capability.

Jan 1, 1987

By E. W. Felegy

Since 1920, the Bureau of Mines and, other agencies have conducted numerous investigations of methods of communication for use in mines in times of disaster or emergency. The results of these investigations have been reported in various publications (3, 4; 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16). In November 1944, the Bureau of Mines resumed the study of emergency underground communications. Until March 1946, the program was directed toward reexamining methods of underground communication that indicated possibilities of success. Since April 1946, the principal interest of this investigation has been in methods of application of radio to communication in mines, low-frequency radio seeming to offer the most promise as a successful method of emergency mine communication. Results achieved in reexamining other methods and in the investigation or the application of low-frequency radio between November 1944 and September 1946 were reported previously in a publication entitled "Some Studies on Emergency Mine Communications".

Jan 1, 1948

By A. Baldwin

This report describes the engineering feasibility and economic advantages of a unique new mining machine using cutting bits that take a constant-depth linear cut in the coal face. The studies show that this innovative new cutting concept, being developed by the Bureau of Mines, can be designed into the basic continuous mining machine. The resulting miner would be attractive to mine owners because coal could be mined with minimum generation of airborne respirable dust, substantial increases in productivity, and elimination of methane ignition due to cutting.

Jan 1, 1977

By George A. Morgan

The production and processing of crude petroleum and natural gas are the dominant economic sectors of the Middle East. The IS countries that constitute the region accounted for 26% of world crude petroleum output, 17% of world natural gas plant liquid production, and almost S% of world dry natural gas production. About 66% of total world crude petroleum reserves and 31 % of total world natural gas reserves are in the Middle East. Transportation and port facilities in the region are geared to expediting efficient and rapid shipment of these materials. U.S.-dollar-denominated export sales of these fuels, estimated at $120 billion in 1989, provide funding for further diversification of the mineral industry. This is usually through development of downstream facilities for producing energy intensive metals such as aluminum and byproducts of the fuels such as petro-chemicals and fertilizers. Earnings from the industry are also channeled by sever-al Governments in the region to mineral industry projects in Africa and elsewhere. A fairly wide range of nonfuel minerals is produced in the region. However, the variety of minerals produced, output levels, and the size of the overall nonfuel mineral economy is dominated by Iran and Turkey. Turkey, with a diverse mineral production and strategically situated between Europe and the Middle East, ranked among the top three world producers of boron, chromite, pumice, and strontium. It was also a significant world producer of magnesium com-pounds, mercury, and sodium sulfate. Iran had generally lower output owing to 9 years of neglect to the mining sector between 1979 and 1988. It was a significant producer of gypsum and fifth in world production of strontium. Despite a very small domestic mineral industry, Israel was second in world production of bro-mine and a significant producer of phosphate rock and potash. Jordan ranked fifth in world production of phosphate rock. Iraq ranked about eighth in world production of sulfur, a commodity of major importance in the metallurgical, petrochemical, and fertilizer industries.

Jan 1, 1992

By Sumner M. Anderson

THE importance of the mineral industries of the Latin American area in 1964 may be evaluated in respect to a number of points of reference, a few of which are measurable and appropriate for examination. With regard to the region's contribution to total world production, it accounted for total 1964 world output of natural nitrates (from Chile), and about 97 percent of the optical and electrical grades of quartz crystal (from Brazil). The region supplied over 20 percent of world output of 7 other mineral commodities and accounted for 4 percent or more of world output of 19 other mineral products. Among major commodities, the area, occupying 15 percent of the earth's land surface, supplied within 3 percent of that proportion of the world's output of copper, lead, tin, zinc, barite, and crude petroleum. Incomplete compilation of production data, particularly that of nonmetallic minerals, precludes production estimates on some items for the area ass whole, and therefore the importance of Latin America as a world producer of some additional commodities may not be clearly assessed. For example, most of the countries of the area collect only incomplete data or no data at all on the production of clays and other ceramic materials, sand and gravel, dimension and crushed stone, lime, ornamental and precious stones, perlite, vermiculite, carbon black, coal tar products, and petrochemicals. In the case of many countries of the area, the value of production of one or more of these commodities greatly exceeded that of other mineral industry products that are carefully reported.

Jan 1, 1966

By Ronald P. Hollenbeck

The value of mineral production in Alabama increased 1 percent above the record high set in 1965. Alabama ranked second among the States in the production of bauxite, third in the production of masonry cement, native asphalt, and scrap mica, sixth in the production of portland cement, ninth in the production of iron ore, and tenth in the production of lime. The mineral industry of Alabama was dominated by the mining and processing of coal and stone, the manufacturing of cement, and the production of crude petroleum. These industries accounted for 87 percent of the State's total value of mineral production, compared with 85 percent in 1965.

Jan 1, 1967

By Sarkis G. Ampian

Extraction of alumina was correlated with the sinter and leach products from the lime soda sinter process for anorthosite. The effect of composition and grain size of reactants, time and temperature of sintering, and techniques of sample preparation were investigated. Greater than 90 percent Al2O3 extractions were obtained from dry-mixed minus 200-mesh anorthosite sinter mixes having mole ratios of CaO/SiO2 = 1.8 and Na2O/Al2O3 = 0.8. These sinter mixes were briquetted at 15,000 psi and fired between 1,200° C and 1,320° C for 20 to 60 minutes. The sinter phases that contribute to low alumina recovery were determined by X-ray diffractometry, optical microscopy, and electron probe X-ray spectrography. The mechanism of the sintering reaction was investigated by high-temperature X-ray diffractometry. The contrast in the lime soda sinter process for clays and for anorthosites are discussed. Explanations and suggested solutions are presented for problems such as gelation and variable alumina recovery encountered by previous investigations.

Jan 1, 1967

By W. D. Striffler

Land disturbed by surface mining in Colorado and other western states has increased substantially over the past several years and is likely to increase even more in the future. This study was initiated to provide basic information on hydrologic and erosional characteristics of regraded coal spoils in Colorado as an aid for planning future reclamation activities. Eleven of twenty-one surface mines licensed in Colorado were sampled during the summer of 1980 and 1981. Mines not sampled included mines which had not progressed to the point that reclamation had begun, and mines where operators denied permission to sample. All coal regions were sampled with the exception of the San Juan Coal Field. Physical and hydrologic characteristics of regraded coal spoils in Colorado were determined using standard field and laboratory procedures. Field sampling included characterization of sites (slope, vegetation density, proportion of surface rock, bare soil, etc.) and infiltration measurements using a l-meter square drop former raining on a 1/2 square meter rectangular plot frame. Core samples collected in the field were analyzed for saturated hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, organic matter, moisture retention and texture. The erosion potential of each site was determined using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Results of the sampling indicate that infiltration rates vary widely both within and between sites. However, definite trends with respect to coal fields are apparent. For example, the Green River (Yampa) coal region had a wide range of sampled infiltration rates (1.2 to 5.1 cm/hr). However, most of the sites clustered towards the low end of the range. The North Park (Marr Strip) also was rated at the low end of the infiltration range (2.0 to 3.0 cm/hr). Average infiltration rates for the Canon City and Uinta Coal Regions were at the high end of the range (4.9 to 5.5 cm/hr). Multiple correlation analysis of infiltration rates vs. site characteristics showed that infiltration rates were most closely correlated with the depth of wetting, the amount of mulch cover, and site slope. The depth of wetting was highly correlated with the depth of the topsoil and the bulk density of the spoil. In general, the topsoil at all sites appeared to be highly permeable to water intake but once saturated, subsequent infiltration depended upon characteristics of the underlying spoil. Vegetation cover affected infiltration on individual mine sites but was not as pronounced as topsoil characteristics or mulch. Erodibility of topsoil and spoils, as determined by Wischmeier's "K" factor, ranged from 1.34 to 0.56 tonnes/ha. (topsoil) and 1.25 to 0.66 tonnes/ha. (spoils). Definite trends in erodibility are evident. The Green River (Yampa) Coal Region displayed consistently higher erodibilities (1.34 to 0.75 tonnes/ha.) than other coal fields (0.72 to 0.56 tonnes/ha). Lowest erodibilities were observed in the Uinta, North Park, and Raton Mesa Coal Regions (0.56 to 0.62 tonnes/ha). Erodibilities of underlying spoils showed similar trends as the topsoils. Erosion potential (the product of soil erodibility and rainfall erosivity) was detennined using calculated ?K? factors and rainfall erosivities (R) taken from Clyde (1976). Results show that the Delagua coal field, Raton Mesa Coal Region had the greatest erosion potential due to the high rainfall energies in the region, while the North Park and Uinta Coal Regions had the lowest potential erosion.

Jan 1, 1981

By K. E. Stanfield

[Asphalt and road oil are the principal products manufactured from Wyoming ?clack oils? which, because of their high asphalt an high sulfur content, are difficult and costly to refine into high-grade motor fuels, burning oils, and lubricants by pre sent methods. Accordingly, the remand for these asphaltic residuums for the construction of roads and other uses is a controlling- factor in the quantity of crude oil produced. The increasing utilization of special asphalts as inexpensive bonding, insulating, and waterproofing materials indicates the desirability of obtaining information on the yield and properties, of asphalts from Wyoming black oil to promote a wider and more stable caret for these asphaltic materials.]

Jan 1, 1941

By W. J. Fene

A comprehensive study of all bituminous coal-mine fatalities occurring in Pennsyl¬ vania during the 5-year period, 1926-1930, was made to try to determine the factors that in¬ fluence accidents which cause these fatalities. During this study some two thousand reports of fatalities were reviewed, and pertinent information as to causes and influencing factors were tabulated therefrom. These tabulations are discussed in detail, and in some instances recommendations are made with a view to reducing the hazards in certain classes of these accidents.

Sep 1, 1931

By D. J. Dollhopf

A week-long selective overburden handling dragline op ration was conducted at a strip mine near Colstrip, Montana. The objective of the demonstration was to hvdrologically isolate a saline overburden zone during placement in the spoil piles. The saline zone had concentrations considered inimical to successful reclamation and was potentially dangerous to future water quality in the spoils aquifer. The zone was identified after review of chemical data for overburden samples collected from the intense 60 m grid drilling pattern. The saline zone in the overburden was: 1) handled in a normal manner; 2) segregated and buried; and 3) segregated, buried, and covered with a relatively impermeable 1.0 m thick clay cap. The method used to formulate this demonstration, the demonstration itself, and the monitoring and evaluation techniques are described in this report. Observation wells were installed to monitor ground water in the overburden, Rosebud coal, and McKay coal. Data from these wells were, used to estimate post reclamation water levels and to evaluate recharge and water movement characteristics in the vicinity of the demonstrations. The inimical zone was successfully handled in a selective manner with a minimum of delays. Economic analysis indicated cost of these selective burial operations to be about 1.1 to 1.5 times the cost of the normal operation at this particular mine site. Long term monitoring will be required to evaluate the effectiveness of these handling techniques in hydrologically isolating undesirable overburden materials.

Jan 1, 1977

By Bernadette C. Michalski

THE RAPID GROWTH of the small Albanian mineral industry in the 1950's began to taper off by 1961 and slackened sharply in 1963. The abandonment of Soviet and East European technical assistance programs in mid-1961 greatly affected Albania's mineral development, since four-fifths of all technical aid personnel were engaged in mineral activities. Chinese assistance apparently has not been able to fill the void. Overall mineral production increases during 1961-63 averaged 1 percent per year in value, as compared with 3 percent in 1959 and 5 percent in 1960. Although by world standards Albanian mineral output, except for chromite, is insignificant, it is vital to the country's domestic economy. The mineral industry generated about 14 percent of the gross industrial product in 1962 and employed a notable share of the industrial labor force. In recent years, mineral products have provided about three-fifths of the country's exports by value. Chromite and iron-nickel ores together constituted from one-fourth to one-third of the total export value. In 1963, total trade turnover increased 12 percent over 1962.

Jan 1, 1964

By Frank J. Perzak

This report describes a U.S. Bureau of Mines study on the hazards of large-scale conveyor belt fires in underground coal mines, as a function of both air velocity and distance from belt surface to gallery roof. The fire hazards considered were smoke obscuration, toxic effects of carbon monoxide (CO), and elevated air temperatures downstream of the fire. All of these hazards scale with the ratio of fire intensity to ventilation airflow. These hazards were all found to be greater at the lower belt-to-roof distance, owing to the greater fire intensities that resulted. The hazards of smoke obscuration and elevated CO levels were greater at lower air velocities. Smoke obscuration was found to be the earliest hazard, reaching critical levels before the stage of belt flame spread. Critical levels of CO and downstream air temperatures were not reached until the later stages of flame spread. Fire growth rates during rapid flame spread were much greater than rates measured during the early stages of belt burning. Data were analyzed to determine the early-warning capability of fire sensors. Smoke sensors provided the earliest warning, followed closely by CO sensors. Thermal sensors did not exhibit any early warning capability.

Jan 1, 2010

By David A. Lipton

In the summer of 1985, at the request of the U.S. Forest Service, the U.5. Bureau of Mines examined the 109,000-acre West Big Hole study area to evaluate its identified mineral resources. The study area is in Beaverhead County, about 50 mi west of Dillon, MT. Four lode properties within or adjacent to the study area contain an estimated 452,000 tons of identified subeconomic gold-silver resources. Resources ranged from 900 to 302,000 tons, with estimated grades between 0.02 and 0.23 oz/ton gold and as much as 4.8 oz/ton silver. Gold, silver, and base-metal content in samples of poorly exposed mineralized structures indicate that exploration may identify resources on 18 additional lode properties within the study area and 5 properties adjacent to it.

Jan 1, 1988