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By Jan Magne Markussen

China, India and South Korea are three developing/newly industrialized countries that can show a very positive economic development in latter years. Moreover the three countries also feature amongst the countries with the highest level of activity in deep seabed mining today. India was the first country to achieve Pioneer Investor status in accordance with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. The country has carried out comprehensive exploitation of nodule deposits in the Central Indian Basin. India has an active programme for development of mining technology and internationally, India is probably the leading nation today as far as processing technology is concerned. China for its part has established a central coordination unit for its deep seabed involvement and its exploration and technology development is already well underway. South Korea has applied for Pioneer Investor status and much indicates that it will be allocated its own minesite in the autumn of 1994. The three countries are in mutual contact in the area of the Law of the Sea. Korea contacted both China and India when drawing up its application for pioneer investor status and allocation of minesite. However, no cooperation exists between the three regarding for example technology development, economic analysis or in studies of the environmental consequences. The main purpose of this paper is to focus on why and how the three countries would be well advised to cooperate in the above areas. Economic, technological and organizational aspects all point in that direction.

Jan 1, 1994

By Youngtak Ko

The northeastern Pacific shows the highest nodule abundance among the oceans in the world, and thus has been drawing international attention for deep-sea manganese nodule development. The objectives of this study are to construct database using geostatistics and geographic information system (GIS), to quantify rating value using probability and statistical methods, to suggest suitable sites for manganese nodule development, and to verify results using three statistical approaches. The copper and nickel contents of the nodules were determined by chemical analysis. Factors related to slope, aspect, water depth, and topography were obtained from multi-beam echo sounding data. The transparent layer thickness was determined using a sub-bottom profiler. The probability method was used to calculate each factor's rating, and the layers for different factors were summed to produce the development potential index (DPI). Result maps were constructed for manganese nodules development. The distribution pattern of DPI showed to be controlled of nodule abundance and metal contents. Verification was performed by comparing the results with sampling data in three ways: success and prediction rate, linear regression, and test of independence.

Sep 14, 2011

By Yannick Beaudoin

The source of base metals in modern seafloor hydrothermal systems can be attributed to leaching of host rocks by hydrothermal fluids and/or potentially by direct degassing of magma. From an economic perspective, metal grade is the most important consideration for seafloor deposits. Tectonic setting appears to be a key factor influencing the development of high grade seafloor base metal sulfide deposits. Back-arcs have a clear advantage over other settings in producing large and rich polymetallic sulfide ores. Microinclusions of magma or so-called melt inclusions trapped in phenocrysts of lavas have contributed to our understanding of the ore-forming process. n this study, we present data from 103 melt inclusions mainly in plagioclase crystals hosted in basaltic to rhyolitic lavas from 9 modern seafloor tectonic settings: oceanic back-arcs (Manus Basin including an ODP Leg 193 drill hole, Bransfield Straits), continental back-arc (Okinawa Trough), mid-ocean ridges (Explorer, MAR), seamounts (Foundation, Axial, Pito), and a transform (Garrett). Most sites host active hydrothermal systems that are producing polymetallic sulfides.

Jan 1, 2005

By Igor E. Mikhaltsev

The goal of investigation of the midwaters and of the bottom of the world - ocean versus technological possibilities. Manned vehicles and maximum depth decision. The methods of solving of the problem. The science and technology alloy. Mutual venture of Academy of Sciences of the USSR and, Rauma-Repola Oy of Finland. MIR-1 and MIR-2 - as twins. No reasons of copy "Sea Cliff" and "Nautilus". Six landmarks of specificity of "MIR"-type submersibles. The manned spheres and three ballast spheres are made of maraging steel; the electric power resource (100 kwh) and maximum underwater speed (5 knots) is two times more than of the analogous vehicles while the batteries are of NiFe type; the MIR submersibles have the seawater ballast (and trim) system which means practically unlimited vertical manoeuvrability ; and the weight in air is equal to "Nautilus" - 18,6 tons (in case of equal energy resource the weight of MIR-1 or MIR-2 would be 17 tons). Some remarks on standard life support (248 man-hours) safety systems and specificity of launch & recovery system.

Jan 1, 1988

In early 1990s, the Korean government has launched a deep-sea research program to secure the stable long-term supply of strategic metallic minerals including Cr, Cu and Ni. Through the pioneering surveys, Korea registered 150,000 km2 of Mn-nodule field in the Clarion-Clipperton area, the NE equatorial Pacific to the international sea-bed authority (ISA) in 1994. Following the ISA exploration code, the final exclusive exploration area of 75,000 Km2 was assigned in 2002, based on results of eight-year researches of chemicophysical properties of nodules, bottom profiles and sediment properties. Since that time, environmental studies, mining technical developments including robot miner and lifting system and establishment of smelting systems were accompanied with the detailed geophysical studies to decipher the priori mining area until 2009. Major points of the recent Korea Mn-nodule program are deployed on a commercial scale until 2015. In order to meet the goals, detailed 25,000 scaled mining maps in the priori area will be prepared, which can provide operation roots of the miner. In addition, an environmental-friendly mining strategy will be pursued based on the environmental impact test and environmental monitoring.

Sep 14, 2011

By Roy Nilsen, Aravinda Perera

With the exponential growth of demand for minerals and need for diversification of supply channels, deep-sea mining is rapidly becoming inevitable. Productivity of underwater mining technology is salient to justify the deep-sea explorations. Methods for enhanced productivity of mobile mining equipment in a system level are investigated in this paper. Lessons learnt from the land-based mining has been the basis of this investigation. In general, mining productivity can be enhanced in two ways; firstly, by maximizing the amount of recovered material per unit time and secondly, by minimizing the cost of operation per unit material. Equipment that enable faster excavation, loading and transport in the seabed contributes significantly in increasing the amount of slurry per unit time. Improved mean time between failures (MTBF) of mining equipment will reduce the operational down time, thereby, contribute to maximize the amount of mined material per unit time. Several factors influence the operational cost minimization per ton of slurry. Higher efficient motor drive systems including the motor and PWM-fed inverter not only will save power but also will emit lesser heat thus the heat management can be less complex. This leads to more compact drive systems that allows higher power density, thus increased payload weight per empty vehicle weight. An energy storage method in the form of an utracapacitor in the electric drive system will also save the energy supply from the upstream.

Jan 1, 2018

By Cameron Rees

The University of New South Wales Mining Research Centre (UMRC) has a longstanding research reputation in mining research, with particular expertise in mining systems, mining geomechanics and excavation engineering. The UMRC is now focusing this expertise on the potential of mining Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS). The UMRC has initiated a three-year research project that will identify and examine the requirements to effectively and efficiently mine SMS deposits. The major aims of this project are: ? To develop an understanding of the geomechanical characteristics and local physical environmental conditions associated with a ?typical? SMS deposit. ? To develop and evaluate a range of both conventional and innovative excavation processes for mining SMS deposits, and define the engineering parameters required for each extraction option, and ? To identify the materials handling and lifting requirements of the ?mined? SMS material, and the possible integration of the lifting system with the excavation processes considered.

Jan 1, 2002

By J. M. (Mac) Beggs

With New Zealand?s ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1996, the government of the day increased work on developing an oceans strategy to help create a governance framework for the country?s extensive existing and potential maritime territories. This project took a new direction in 2001 with the establishment of an ad hoc committee of 6 Ministers, and their appointment of a Ministerial Advisory Committee (on which the senior author served) to consult with the public, identify widely held values and inform the development of a Vision for subsequent policy development. The current second stage of the policy development process involves a working group of officials from the relevant agencies completing a stock-take of existing laws and regulations to identify overlaps and gaps that should be addressed in the third and final stage. The public consultation process revealed, as might be expected, a wide range of perspectives but a solid consensus in favour of a coherent, and balanced, framework to enable the realization of economic benefits of ocean development so long as appropriate environmental standards (broadly expressed in terms of sustainability) are not compromised.

Jan 1, 2002

By Jayne Holden

Development of a deep-sea mining system is a new and interesting field of research. Commercial mining of the ocean floor for SMS deposits is yet to occur, and while exploration of the undersea has been undertaken by various research institutes exploitation of SMS deposits is yet to be investigated in detail. Industry has been stimulated by the potential development of economically viable deep-sea mining methods. The establishment of deep-sea mining production has also been encouraged by industry trends. These include the success of the oil and offshore diamond industries, scientific advances in computer modeling, technological advances in undersea exploratory equipment and further development of the Law of the Sea. This project also presents an opportunity to build on UNSW?s established reputation, positioning the Mining Research Centre as a leader in this specialized field of research. This project aims to form a greater understanding of the environmental conditions associated with SMS deposits, detailing the physical, biological and chemical characteristics of typical ocean floor sites from an environmental management perspective. With the aid of previous numerical models and disturbance experiments that have been conducted at various ocean floor sites worldwide, new virtual reality models will be developed to enable assessment of the environmental impact of the undersea mining process. These models will simulate seafloor systems prior to mining through various stages including particle distribution and sediment disturbance, to illustrate the impact of a number of proposed mining techniques. The model will allow users an interactive virtual experience of a potential SMS deposit site where hotspots can be identified and mining processes can be demonstrated. This initial baseline model will help to establish generic parameters, which can then be modified and tailored to simulate a wide range of deposit sites and differing mining processes. These models will be validated with the development of appropriate physical modelling.

Jan 1, 2002

Ancient volcanogenic Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-Au massive sulfide ores commonly have associated with them along strike and in the immediate hanging wall a distinctive sediment that is thin, usually cherty and metal enriched, and generally referred to as an "exhalite horizon" or "tuffaceous exhalite". Typical examplks include the 13 Ma tetsusekiei of the Kuroko deposits of Japan (Kalogeropoulos and Scott, 1983, Econ. Geol.) and the 2700 Ma contact tuffs of Noranda, Canada (Kalogeropoulos and Scott, 1989, Can. J. Earth Sci.) and Key Tuffite of Mattagami, Canada (Liaghat and McLean, 1992, Explor. Min. Geol.). Attempts to use trace element distributions as lithogeochemical guides to ore have been largely unsuccessful. Exhalites have been considered to be the products of seafloor hydrothermal activity that is peripheral to the main ore-producing vents. However, large actively-forming polyrnetallic sulfide deposits at the Explorer mid-ocean basalt spreading ridge (1 850 m depth) in the NE Pacific and the eastern Manus back-arc dacitic spreading center (1650 m depth) in the western Pacific have demonstrated that the exhalite horizons are more likely produced by fallout of particulates from the main hydrothermal plume. In a typical hydrothermal plume, grains of >27 µm represent up to 97% of the mass (although only 2% of the population) of the particulates and are calculated by Stokes equations to fall from the plume to the seafloor within a few krn of their source. The particles are primarily composed of anhydrite, barite, amorphous silica, iron oxyhydroxides and metal sulfides and oxides. Plumes are subject to bottom currents which push them in preferred directions, just like smoke plumes in the atmosphere are subject to the vagaries of wind direction. Bottom currents in the deep ocean can be 50 m/min or

Jan 1, 1993

By Lu Jun

Up to now, much data on marine minerals, as well as on marine geochemistry, have been accumulated. Modem computer databases provide optimum flexibility and power for manipulating these data. The best worldwide marine mineral database is currently the Marine Minerals Bibliography and Geochemical Data Base created by Carla Moore et al. at the National Geophysical Data Center in the United States. In fact, in the course of studying marine minerals and geochemistry we may collect not only digital-character type data but also graph and image (black-white, grey and color image) data types. For instance, correlation diagram between chemical compositions of minerals, spectroscopic graphs, (e.g. infrared spectra, Mossbauer spectra, etc.), grey or color images from both optical and electron micro- scopes (scanning or transmission electron microscopes) as well as seabed photographs. Charles L. Morgan et al. (1993) reported that 10,000 photographs and some video images of the seabed in the Clarion-Clipperton region of the northeastern tropical Pacific have been collected by the Ocean Minerals Company. If both graphic and analytical information were stored in a database, it would be very useful and convenient to marine geologists. This system would not only be able to search for all the data based on one parameter, but also for both size and composition distributions. If possible, geostatistical methods could be combined with fractal dimensional methods. Of course, this would require enormous efforts. Before multimedia technology emerged, it was very difficult to create image databases. The emergence of large-capacity compact discs, high-speed central processing units, and high-speed digital signal processing techniques makes it possible to establish multimedia database management systems (DBMS), image-text DBMS, that involves graphs, text, images, and sound. In order to store image fields in a DBMS, we have to take into account two problems: (1) image access format and (2) image compression code standard.

Jan 1, 1994

By Tobias Hens, Andrew Frierdich, Barbara Etschmann, Joël Brugger, Barrie Bolton

"Advancing our knowledge about trace metal distribution and abundance provides insight into formation, alteration, and trace element enrichment processes of ferromanganese nodules and crusts. A fundamental understanding of these mechanisms, in turn, has implications for the selective recovery of critical metals and the development of sustainable hydrometallurgical techniques. Synchrotron-based X-ray Fluorescence (SXRF) is a powerful, state-of-the-art analytical tool that can examine geochemical features of Fe-Mn nodules and crusts, such as abundance and distribution of trace elements, in an integrated and efficient manner. By correlating trace element composition and Mn oxidation states in these highly complex samples, it can be determined whether these parameters are related to the Mn oxide mineralogy (vacancy content of crystal lattice) and chemistry.In this study, eleven Fe-Mn nodule and crust samples from three circum-Australian locations – the South Tasman Rise, Lord Howe Rise, and Coral Sea – were analyzed at the Australian Synchrotron, Victoria, Australia. Micrometer-scale spatial resolution of geochemical features, such as concentric growth structures and element distribution, was achieved with high sensitivity (Fig. 1). For instance, Ni could be detected at 10's of ppm to 1 wt% levels. Information on other redox-sensitive trace elements, which are present at 10-1000 ppm levels (e.g., Cu, Co, Ti), were gained by means of fully quantitative elemental composition maps."

Jan 1, 2017

By Tobias Hens, Andrew Frierdich, Joël Brugger

The rapid advancement of green technologies in recent years is closely tied to an ever- increasing demand for raw materials. Innovative forms of zero-emission transportation and sustainable power generation will require a variety of traditional metals such as Ni and Co, but also many non-traditional metals (e.g., REY). Many of these elements are known to be highly enriched in deep-sea ferromanganese (Fe-Mn) nodules and crusts. However, unlocking these metals from their deposits through metal processing is – aside from deposit exploration and production – expected to be a critical component that will affect the overall economics of the marine mining value chain. Hence, research and development of tailored metal processing solutions which can target specific metals of interest in Fe-Mn nodules and crusts, is required. Dynamic mineral recrystallization (DMR) of Fe-Mn oxide phases is a geochemical process that may have notable potential for hydrometallurgical applications. We have recently demonstrated that Ni can effectively be cycled between deep-sea Fe-Mn nodules and crusts and solutions through dynamic mineral recrystallization. DMR occurs in nature as abiotic background process during biogeochemical Mn cycling when dissolved Mn(II) is in direct contact with Mn oxides. Trace metals which are incorporated in the Mn host phases, are cycled between solid phase and solution via coupled dissolution (trace metal release) – reprecipitation (trace metal incorporation) mechanisms.

Jan 1, 2018

By Jonguk Kim

The North Fiji Basin (NFB) is a mature intraoceanic back arc basin with an age of ~12 Ma. Recent volcanism and spreading activity are focused along the Central Spreading Ridge (CSR), A ridge segment more than 800 km long, composed of four main segments, the N160°, N15°, north-south (N-S), and southernmost segments from north to south. The dominant volcanic rock in the entire central spreading ridge is normal mid-ocean ridge basalt (N-MORB), very similar to those emplaced along mid-oceanic ridges. Conversely, influence of an oceanic island basalt (OIB) source increases northward from 18°20'S. Several basalts which show a significant subduction-related component are also observed in the southern part of the NFB. Hydrothermal activity along the spreading centers of the North Fiji Basin was investigated by several previous works, especially by the STARMER project in 1989 and 1991. Both extinct and active hydrothermal vents are found on the N15° and N-S segments. In contrast, only traces of hydrothermal activity have been found on the N160° segment. Although high temperature activity and related massive sulfide deposit on the N15° segment was further investigated by several follow-up studies, no systematic survey for other hydrothermal sites was conducted after their discovery. In 2012 and 2013, KIOST performed two hydrothermal expeditions aboard the R/V Onnuri in the three targeted areas of hydrothermal activity along the CSR of North Fiji Basin. All targeted areas include sites for hydrothermal activity reported in previous works. Occurrence and distribution of hydrothermal plume were investigated by combined

Sep 14, 2011

By Georgy A. Cherkashov

Two principal types of the hydrothermal fields in Atlantic - axial and off-axis - could be established based on their structural setting in the rift zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) (Figure1). The first (axial) type is represented by five high- and three low-temperature hydrothermal sites (Table 1). All of these fields are connected with young axial effusive volcanism and related to large linear volcanic ridges or central volcanoes at the inner floor of the rift valley. The hydrothermal activity here is controlled by the intersection between longitudinal magma feeding faults and transverse weakened zones characterized by high permeability. [ ] The hydrothermal sites of the second (off-axis) type (such as Rainbow, TAG, 24°30?N, Logatchev, newly discovered 13°N (Figure 2) and possibly 16°48?N sites) are related to large tectonic dislocations forming marginal scarps of the rift valley as well as transverse discontinuities.

Jan 1, 2003

By G. Cherkashov

A new hydrothermal field with massive sulfide deposits was discovered in 2004 at 16º 38.4?N, 46º 28.5?W on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Hydrothermal signals had already been recorded from bottom waters and sediments in this area during cruise 19 of R/V Professor Logatchev in 2000. This site was revisited during the 24th cruise of R/V Professor Logatchev in February 2004 when samples of massive sulfides were recovered and video records of the deposits made. The basalt hosted hydrothermal field is situated at a depth of 3700-3750 m, 600 m above the inner floor on the eastern slope of the rift valley. Structurally, the new field is located at the intersection of a deep along-axis marginal fault and a transverse sub-latitudinal dislocation. Six sulfide mounds as well as associated metalliferous sediments were mapped (sampled and/or recorded by video profiling) within the hydrothermal site. The largest ore body, 500 x 225 m, in the southern part of the field consists of small blocky talus and relics of sulfide chimneys partly covered by iron oxyhydroxides. The chimneys are 1-5 m high. The southern and western boundaries of the massive sulfide deposit have not yet been delineated. More than 1,100 kg of massive sulfides and stockwork mineralization were sampled at 7 sites by dredge and TV-grab. Everywhere, iron sulfides were the principal minerals present. Pyrite in association with lesser amounts of chalcopyrite occurs in both massive sulfides and stockwork mineralization. Of particular interest is the chalcopyrite-siliceous stockwork where silicified and chalcopyritized basalts are intruded by a network of chalcopyrite veinlets. These zones could be fairly thick and enriched in base metals. Sphalerite was very rare.

Jan 1, 2004

By Siobhan Quayle

Managing sediment plumes under multiple jurisdictions Management of activities in the New Zealand EEZ can be characterized as a distributed basis of decision-making with each independent and separate decision-maker focused on specific elements of a proposal (environmental, work place safety, wildlife management, fisheries, navigation, oil spill). The New Zealand EEZ Act 2012 was intended as gap-filling legislation to address the lack of an environmental assessment lens for permissions to undertake certain activities in the New Zealand EEZ. These activities relate mostly to marine scientific research, dumping and discharges, oil and gas exploration and development, and seabed mining. The regulatory decision-maker for most EEZ Act marine consents is the New Zealand EPA. Since 2013 when this gap-filling legislation took effect, the EPA and its decision- making committees have processed three seabed mining applications. Two consents were refused, one consent was granted in 2017. A common feature of all consents has been the assessment and consideration of the scale, significance and effects of sediment plumes arising from the activity. One consent is for irons and mining in about 40m of water where the plumes reach the nearby coastal waters and shoreline, the second consent is far offshore but plumes extend far beyond the mining area (850 km2) in to rare coral habitats and in to a significant offshore fishery. A significant consideration for decision-makers is how the assessment and management of plumes under the EEZ Act interact with, and potentially overlap, management of such plumes under other legislation (Resource Management Act, Marine Mammals Protection Act, and Wildlife Act). This is in a statutory context where the EEZ Act requires explicit consideration of the nature and effect of other marine management regimes over the matter under consideration.

Jan 1, 2018

By Justin C. I. Baulch

In October 2004 Placer Dome entered into an exploration farm-in agreement with Nautilus Minerals, to explore for Submarine Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits on Nautilus? PNG exploration tenements. Placer/Nautilus currently holds approximately 15,000 km2 of tenements in PNG waters, either granted or under application, covering all reported seafloor hydrothermal vent occurrences.

Jan 1, 2005

By Andrea Koschinsky, Luise Heinrich, Stefan Gößling-Reisemann

"Germany, like several other countries, has entered a contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) to explore the prospects of commercial manganese nodule mining in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). Ensuring a maximally sustainable deep-sea mining operation requires a thorough understanding of the environmental impacts associated with every step of the mining process from the extraction of the nodules at the seafloor to the refinery on land. Against this background, the project presented here applies a combination of scenario-building and life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess and evaluate the sustainability performance of the individual process steps as well as the entire mining operation.Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive methodological framework that allows the identification and quantification of impacts occurring during a products life-cycle, as well as the analysis and evaluation of their contribution to pre-defined impact categories, such as climate change, acidification and toxicity (Rebitzer et al., 2004). Until now, LCAs with a focus on raw material extraction have almost exclusively been applied to terrestrial processes. Noteworthy exceptions are offshore drilling, offshore wind farms and ocean fishing. Hence, the first part of the project is to investigate in how far LCA can be applied to deep-sea settings and if and in what way it could be adapted to be used in a deep-sea mining context."

Jan 1, 2017

By Seabed Mineral Authority Runanda Takere Moana

The Cook Islands is a group of 15 islands, being a Polynesian nation in the heart of the South Pacific Ocean and now bears the name of famed English navigator Captain James Cook, who sailed here in the 1770’s. In the 1800s, it was re-named “the Cook Islands” by illustrious Russian cartographers from the previous English name of “The Hervey Islands”. SEABED MINERALS The Cook Islands has one of the world’s most abundant deep seabed mineral (SBM) resources of Manganese nodules estimated at 10 billion tonnes, within its large Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of almost 2 million square kilometres. This knowledge has been gained through numerous scientific surveys conducted in the Cook Islands waters by many international scientific research entities, starting with a Russian deep seabed marine survey in the 1970’s, from which many physical samples of these abundant Manganese nodules were first recovered. Some of the 1970’s Russian samples are still retained in the Cook Islands more than 40 years later. Then a comprehensive 21 year Pacific wide Seabed Minerals scientific study, between 1985- 2005, undertaken by the Japanese and SOPAC1 based in Fiji, confirmed that the Cook Islands has a vast, unique and valuable deep seabed minerals resource of Cobalt rich Manganese nodules. These Nodules contain many valuable minerals required by the global market including Nickel, Copper, Cobalt and Rare Earth Elements.

Jan 1, 2018