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By W J. Haylock, K Wasiel

PX4 Software Pty Ltd is a Brisbane-based company, which specialises in providing tenement management software to mining and exploration teams operating in Australia and several international jurisdictions, including the United States, Africa, and Canada. Whilst the company is experiencing substantial growth due to a demand from both the minerals and mining technology sector, there is a crucial gap in the market for critical minerals, which will be required to achieve the net-zero emissions goal set by the Paris Agreement for 2050. To help understand and address the technology gap identified by the unprecedented demand, PX4 Software undertook the Annual Survey of Technological Transformation in the Exploration Industry. This survey involved interviews with 12 very distinguished subject matter experts in the fields of Geoscience and Geology from across the globe. From this survey, we have defined eight major categories of exploration technologies. Notably, the most transformative of these technologies over the past 65 years falls into the Geophysical Methodology category, specifically focusing on image and signal processing of both airborne and downhole data. Advances in computing power during this period have significantly improved data processing quality, enhancing orebody modelling, and targeting. This has had a profound impact on the industry. Moreover, the survey reveals that future transformative technologies are expected to centre on the automation of existing processes through AI and Machine Learning techniques. This is expected to help facilitate the identification of critical mineral systems and thus enable the exploration industry to make more informed decisions based on data analysis using Machine Learning and AI.

Sep 1, 2024

By C Sylvestre

For the last 50 years, traditional safety management has improved safety performance by: • Fixing the environment (eliminating the hazard). • Improving the system (more/less rules, procedures etc). • Making safety more conscious (more/better interactions about the importance of safety). Although these approaches certainly have merit, and may be part of an overall solution, they are not enough to prevent many modern-day incidents. Today, these three approaches are used more than before, and are used better than ever before. Yet, workplace fatalities in Australia have stagnated from 2013 to 2019, as have the number of incidents, even serious ones. In the USA, workplace fatalities have increased by 15 per cent in the same period.

May 5, 2022

The history of gold dredging in New Zealand, leading to the develop- ment of the `New Zealand Type' dredge is considered. Much of this infor- mation has come from contemporaneous publications by the New Zealand Department of Mines. Alluvial gold production declined after 1902, and ceased completely in 1982, but is now rising again. The progress of the New Zealand alluvial gold mining industry is considered, together with some of its more exceptional successes. Recent developments are com- pared to those of the past.

Jan 1, 1988

By R Berry, J Hunt, T Kojovic

Geometallurgy aids the understanding of orebody variability through the integration of geological and processing information, thereby enabling spatial mapping of processing (eg comminution or separation) performance across a deposit. In order to do this, estimates of quantitative geometallurgical attributes are needed so that continuous downhole profiles can be generated for each attribute, providing vital data for the development of processing domains through geostatistical modelling. However, as traditional comminution tests are high cost and/or require large samples, current practice typically results in insufficient data density and distribution of comminution indices making it difficult to model and map deposit scale variability. The aim of this work was to find a method to estimate comminution indices based on data that is widely available at mine sites. This data includes mineralogy and chemistry of drill core samples, plus logging information such as lithology and alteration. Work to date indicates that comminution parameters such as semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) Power Index (SPI), Bond Work Index (BWI) and A*b (Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (JKMRC) drop weight test (DWT) Index) can be modelled using chemical and/or mineralogical data. The estimated hardness indices can then be propagated into the mine site database and used in the definition of processing domains that map inherent variability across a deposit. The estimates can thus provide geometallurgical inputs for spatial modelling, mine planning and optimisation initiatives.CITATION:Hunt, J, Kojovic, T and Berry, R, 2013. Estimating comminution indices from ore mineralogy, chemistry and drill core logging, in Proceedings The Second AusIMM International Geometallurgy Conference (GeoMet) 2013 , pp 173-176 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 29, 2013

By J Yamatomi, Y Tamanishi, S Miwa

The four-dimensional (4D) network relaxation method, originally developed by Akaike in 1999, uses Lagrange relaxation and is known for its ability to include the price change and possible better outputs, but the computation time is huge. However, the continuous advancement in computer technologies allows the use of higher-speed computers with more memory capacity. Therefore, in this paper the authors have tried to implement the method with adjustments and improvements in its algorithm to suit the current computing system. As a result, the computation time has been drastically reduced and more constraints can be included, which makes the scheduling a more realistic one. The case study of an open pit gold mine with 129 500 blocks can be solved considering the capacity constraints in 71 seconds. In previous case studies, the mined ore had to be processed or disposed of immediately. Now, stockpiling can be included as another option. Since the details of the algorithm are still being improved, the computation time is a little longer than the previous cases without the stockpiling option. However, it is found that scheduling with the stockpiling option is possible in a reasonable time. In conclusion, the 4D network relaxation method has become more useful with advances in computer technologies and provides better results.

Sep 26, 2011

Most new engineers in the mining industry do not realise the importance of legal obligations. During investigations the first question you are asked is: Do you have any proof or evidence? The smallest detail in an underground notebook or a diary entry is able to be used as your proof and/or evidence. The importance of a paper trail is often undervalued and overlooked when you first enter the industry. As a new engineer, all too often your legal obligations, including your duty of care are not given enough consideration. Whose job is it to inform you of what your legal obligations are and when do they end? Everyone has legal obligations at every level of the industry, from graduate to mine manager. The level of these responsibilities varies depending on the position that you hold. When you first start in the industry you need to understand what your responsibilities are and how you are expected to discharge them, whether they are memos, databases or senior sign-offs, etc. In order to fulfil your obligations you must first discharge your own obligation, which in turn discharges those of your department and ultimately those of the mine. As a graduate engineer in the mining industry what I have learnt about my own legal obligations has come directly from my own experience, which will form the basis of this paper.

Jan 1, 2007

By J B Tucker, A T. McGrath

Situated in north-west Queensland, Australia, the Ernest Henry Mine (EHM) has been producing copper and gold since 1996. Owned and operated by Glencore Xstrata, ore is currently sourced from a newly developed underground sublevel cave (SLC) mine below the old EHM open pit (the pit). Ore feed to the concentrator is supplemented by satellite open pits comprising the Mount Margaret operation.The transition from open pit to a producing underground mine involved a complex extraction sequence for the first two production sublevels on RL1650 and RL1625. Underground mining during cave initiation was further complicated when south wall instability prevented completion of the final open pit shell. The transition mining phase included mass firing of an inclined crown pillar between the initial SLC void and the pit followed by a combination of transverse and longitudinal SLC mining.The inclined crown pillar mass firing was the first significant milestone in the extraction of the transition ore block. Comprising approximately 890 000 t of in situ material; 70 000 m of drilling was charged with 351 t of emulsion and 6026 electronic detonators to initiate the single mass firing. The firing contained five direction changes over 19 seconds making it one of the largest and most complex underground blasts ever conducted in Australia.Risk management was integrated into every facet of the technical and operational planning and execution of the transition mining phase, whilst maintaining daily mine construction and production commitments. This paper provides a detailed overview of the transition objectives and constraints, mining method selection, post mass blast outcomes and the journey ahead.CITATION:McGrath, A T, Campbell, A D and Tucker, J B, 2014. Transition of the Ernest Henry Mine from open pit to an underground sublevel cave, in Proceedings 12th AusIMM Underground Operators’ Conference 2014 , pp 297–308 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Mar 24, 2014

By A Golsby

Both primary and secondary ventilation is important in underground mining. Secondary ventilation refers to the provision of ventilation to development ends, stopes and services facilities, which constitute secondary circuits tapped off the primary circuit or main through flow of air.An unbalanced primary and secondary combination can cause re-circulation, which is inefficient and potentially hazardous. These inefficiencies extend into operational and other considerations, such as power.Most cost justification analysis covers capital and physical consumables. These analyses are often not comprehensive or holistic. This case study is an example of ‘how to holistically justify’ a secondary ventilation circuit and optimise it to meet all stakeholder needs.This paper particularly addresses the following:how to account for all stakeholders in a secondary ventilation cost justificationthe secondary ventilation componentsthe cost justification outcomes and how to measure themsome of the sensitivitiesthe stakeholdershow to present the justification to meet the stakeholder needssecondary ventilation cost justification.CITATION:Golsby, A, 2015. Secondary ventilation as a value proposition – a case study, in Proceedings The Australian Mine Ventilation Conference, pp 49–54 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 31, 2015

By G R. Ballantyne, G Lane

Dry milling circuits that include high pressure grinding rolls (HPGR) or vertical roller mills (VRM) and air classification have replaced dry ball milling in cement production, but how do they compare to wet milling and classification circuits in mineral processing plants? Two case studies are presented that compare the energy efficiency, wear, liberation and capital cost of dry and wet milling circuits. In both case studies the VRM and HPGR consume half the energy of a wet tumbling mill for the same duty. However, the dry classification system tends to significantly erode the energy benefits. A number of improvement opportunities are presented that have the potential to improve the energy and capital efficiency of dry milling circuits. These improvement opportunities focus on the dry classification system that consumes significant energy in heating and fan power requirements and requires a large proportion of the footprint.

Aug 24, 2022

By T Leidich, M Van Zyl, H Lacy

Mining ‘as usual’, until the most recent decades has resulted in limited landform planning and a general lack of mine waste landform design. Material characterisation, mine planning and dedicated professionals undertaking these tasks were rarely available or in place at the majority of mines. This has led to landform instability, erosion, sediment and poor quality water emanating from mine landforms. In many cases rehabilitation and reclamation failed and these sites have ‘landform features’ that are difficult to relinquish or leave and have little or no apparent land use. In many cases mined landscapes around the world have resulted in a less functional and degraded environment, with deleterious impacts on surrounding ecosystems.This situation is now slowly being addressed, as global companies, academics and practitioners and their organisations have started to exploit the ideas from an integration of earth sciences and mining through the application of planning software dedicated to the design of landforms.This development has had its genesis primarily in the United States. We suggest that process has been driven, in recent decades, by the application of resources in response to the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), (USA Congress 11 December 1980) and other mine reclamation legislation enacted by federal and states regulators in the USA. The combining impact has seen a huge transfer of capital back from the public purse and ‘potentially responsible parties’, into abandoned mines to affect control, remediation, and reclamation/rehabilitation of those mines.Given this investment in rehabilitation and reclamation, people engaging in the business of landform planning have had the opportunity to address landform reclamation of historic and active sites. The skills of engineers and scientists with improved technology, waste rock characterisation and modelling tools have been combined resulting in the evolution of landform design and in mine planning of active mines. This has delivered cost-effective, sustainable mine closure designs for over 30 years. Integration of mine design with an understanding of geomorphic principals and the natural landscape, coupled with waste and soil characterisation, yield a positive result. Recently work has been applied across large and small-scale projects by companies. As these processes develop, ideas and concepts are evolving that active mines, or mines in the early planning stages, could use to help reduce double handling, and in the long run reduce overall project and closure costs, more effectively attain the desired final land use, and enhance the industry’s reputation and licence to operate.CITATION:Leidich, T,?Lacy, H?and Van?Zyl,?M,?2014. Application of design concepts and engineering controls necessary to deliver well-designed and rehabilitated landforms, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2014 , pp 55–66 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 16, 2014

By M Jahani, M Taji

For suitable production planning in an open pit mine, and also to carry out the optimisation process during the mining production cycle, prediction of fragment size distribution is required prior to carrying out the blasting operation. For this purpose, many prediction models, such as empirical models, were presented. The proficiency of these models differs in various conditions and mines. Therefore, in this paper the most important models, including SveDeFo, Kuz-Ram, CZM, Modified Kuz-Ram in 2005, Kuznestsov-Cunningham-Ouchterlony (KCO) and also Gheibie et al, were examined by the information of 20 blasts in Gol-Gohar iron ore mine. Fourteen images were taken on average for each blast. For image processing analysis Split-Desktop software was used. After examination, it was understood that none of the available empirical fragmentation models had presented acceptable performance, except the Kuz-Ram model for magnetite ore, which had somewhat acceptable results. However, this model for blasting patterns in hematite presented unsuitable results. Examination and comparison of two important distribution functions, Rosin-Rammler and Swebrec, were carried out and it was observed that the performance of Swebrec for fines was far better than Rosin-Rammler. This result for the upper part of fragment size distribution curve, coarse, is the reverse.CITATION:Jahani, M and Taji, M, 2015. Comparison of empirical fragmentation models at the Gol-Gohar iron ore mine, in Proceedings 11th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 707–714 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 24, 2015

By S Rogers, D Stead, E Eberhardt

The last decade has seen a major increase in use of the discrete fracture network (DFN) approach applied to cave mining problems, often integrated within more complex geomechanical simulations. Because the value of the DFN model directly depends on the quality and quantity of available field data, there is the need to apply dedicated mapping procedures to collect sufficient structural data at the required engineering scale. This paper attempts to address several key questions about DFN modelling; for example: are current methods for fracture mapping suitable for DFN modelling? What are the critical parameters that we need to measure and what do we need to change in the current practice? Particularly at the earlier stages of a cave project, engineers may have to account for the lack of appropriate data, which manifests itself in the form of increased uncertainty and the difficulty to characterise variability in an objective manner using a limited set of data. DFN models could in principle be generated using limited data by assuming statistical distributions for the sampled parameters; however, engineers would need to be aware of the implications that such limited knowledge (and increased uncertainty) would have on stability analysis, fragmentation analysis and mine design. When used correctly, a DFN approach offers practitioners the opportunity to:maximise the use of fracture data collected from mapping of rock exposuresgenerate more realistic synthetic rock mass modelsprovide estimates of natural fragmentation that also account for rock mass variability.CITATION:Elmo, D, Eberhardt, E, Stead, D and Rogers, S, 2016. Discrete fracture network modelling – importance of accounting for data uncertainty and variability, in Proceedings Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), pp 845–852 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2016

By D Bruce, D Cox

The main access decline at Carrapateena mine was excavated through two different underground aquifers. In these areas of decline, pressurised water finds the path of least resistance through the rock and into the excavation. In some locations the ground water would upwell underneath the roadway resulting in rapid deterioration of the running surface. The deterioration of the road was so rapid that the two areas of decline required significant roadworks every single shift or it would become impassable by mine traffic. With a full fleet of underground trucks hauling to the surface, managing these sections of roadway was impractical and unproductive. The site team resolved this issue by installing Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) to the affected sections of decline. RCC is a specialist concrete product that is delivered to the site near dry and is installed using a grader and roller similar to road base. This product can be installed quickly and be trafficked within hours of installation, making it ideal for mines with single access declines and unfavourable road conditions. RCC roadways were successfully installed at Carrapateena mine in conjunction with under-road drainage. These roadways have proved to be a very effective solution which requires minimal maintenance and are resistant to water ingress from the aquifer. This paper discusses the technical aspects of the RCC, as well as the practical implementation of the solution as a whole.

Mar 15, 2021

By G H. Park, Y J. Jun, J H. Park

The carbon solubility of the CaO-Al2O3-FeO-SiO2-MgO slag, the main system formed in the Ruhrstahl-Heraeus (RH) vacuum degasser, was measured at 1873 K to understand the effect of slag compositions on the carbon contamination in the ultra-low carbon (ULC) steels. The stable form of carbon was demonstrated to be carbonate by plotting the log [(wt%C)/aC] ratio against the log p(O2) which ranged -11 < log p(O2,atm) < -9. The carbon solubility of the CaO-Al2O3-FeO-SiO2-MgO slag can be estimated using thermodynamic model. The distribution ratio of carbon increased with increasing concentration of FeO due to the FeO reduction reaction and increased basicity of slag. The carbonate capacity of the CaO-Al2O3-FeO-SiO2-MgO slag can be expressed as a linear function of the activity of lime and the optical basicity.

Jun 19, 2024

By G Lane, M Bueno

In a recent publication (Bueno and Lane, 2011) the authors presented the analysis of a consolidated dataset composed by 137 autogenous/semi-autogenous grinding (AG/SAG) mill pilot trials. By comparing the measured data against theoretical specific energy consumption, the analysis indicated which circuit configurations were more or less energy efficient. However, the analysis has also indicated that the energy efficiency of each of the types of circuits vary significantly.There are numerous factors that contribute to the variations of energy efficiency of AG/SAG mill-based circuits, such as feed size distribution, recycle ratios and ore characteristics. In view of this, the present work accesses these factors individually and discusses what may lead a particular circuit configuration to be more or less efficient in terms of energy and costs.CITATION:Bueno, M and Lane, G, 2012. Key drivers of energy and cost efficiency in autogenous/semi-autogenous grinding circuits, in Proceedings 11th AusIMM Mill OperatorsÆ Conference, pp 113-118 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Oct 29, 2012

By C E. Gawith

The Waihi underground mining operation currently mines epithermal veins ranging from two metres up to ten metres in width using a ‘Modified Avoca’ stoping method. This method consists of longhole bench stope mining at 15m to 18m sublevel spacing. The bulk of production drilling and blasting is top down with the extraction length of a typical stope panel nominally being 18m to 20m along strike. A stope panel is usually taken in two blasting cycles followed by the remote bogging of the stope ore. The panel is backfilled in-cycle using unconsolidated waste rock material which is tipped into the void from the upper level using a Caterpillar R2900 or R1700 sized underground loader. The underground mine first commenced production in 2008 and up until 2016, as was typical of many open stope mining operations at the time, an underground loader was used to place a waste rock bund at the top brow of the open stope. This rock bund was the principal means of protecting people and equipment from this hazard. In 2016 there was a fatality at the mine when a loader that had been tasked with building this rock bund fell into the stope void. Immediately post incident all mining and processing operations were suspended for a week to allow colleagues to grieve, to observe cultural protocols and to begin the investigation into this event. During this period senior operators, supervisory and technical staff developed an innovative system which used steel bollards to protect this open edge. With development over the following months this bollard system has eliminated this hazard from the Waihi underground mine.

Mar 15, 2021

By G Britton, P Moynagh

As more than a few mines gradually sink under the weight of emails, whiteboards, notice boards and ever more complex spreadsheets, the holy grail of effective short-term interval planning and control in underground mines is as far away as ever. Despite the mining industry investing ever greater amounts in planning and Enterprise Resource Planning systems, short-term plans become ever more complex and rigid. What the industry desperately needs are not more ‘disembodied voices down the speaking tubes’, but flexible and effective planning systems that encourage people to make reasonable commitments to each other so that everyone can work as a coordinated team to complete the work required each shift.One solution to the challenge has emerged. This paper describes the ‘Fewzion’ shift planning and short interval control system which has been developed at Anglo American’s Moranbah North and Glencore’s Oaky Creek coalmines in Central Queensland. Fewzion has drawn on management theory embodied in Management Operating Systems, Lean and Theory of Constraints approaches to continuous improvement to play a key role in both mines achieving record breaking tonnages.In addition to explaining the Fewzion approach, a case study is presented describing how Anglo American’s Moranbah North improved production by 39 per cent in 2014/2015 and won ‘Coalmine of the Year’ two out of the last four years and how Glencore’s Oaky Creek sustainably improved monthly development meters by 34 per cent within two months of implementing Fewzion.CITATION:Moynagh, P and Britton, G, 2017. How a frontline planning and commitment system improves trust, commitment and results in operations, in Proceedings 13th AusIMM Underground Operators’ Conference 2017, pp 235–240 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Oct 16, 2017

The paper describes data from test work programs on a range of magnetite ores in Australia and overseas. The analysis looks at the behaviour of material of different sizes fed to the rolls and the change in product size as a result of that, the conclusion being that there is a logarithmic relationship. The paper develops a form of equation to predict the product size from a given feed size distribution. The behaviour of the various magnetite ores is compared to more standard test methods such as crushing work index and unconfined compressive strength.

Jan 1, 2009

By R M. Yanamandra, S K. Tripathy, N Mangadoddy, P Sudikondala, P Ankireddy

Spiral concentrator is one of the most commonly used gravity concentration devices in mineral processing. The particles are classified based on their specific gravity and size. The present work analyses the experimental and numerical investigations of the water flow field, such as fluid depth and free surface primary velocity of two high gravity spiral concentrators at different flow rates. The measurement techniques use a flow depth gauge and flow visualisation technique adapting lycopodium powder as the tracer. Flow features in terms of liquid depth and primary velocity at the free surface of the flow are captured across the trough in two different high gravity spirals. A highspeed motion camera with an imaging frequency of 5400 frames per second and 768 × 768 pixel resolution is utilised to track the tracer particles in the liquid flow on the dark surface background. Further, the two-phase flow is studied numerically on high gravity spirals based on the volume of fluid (VOF) approach utilising the RNG k-ε model and Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) for predicting the fluid flow on trough surfaces such as water depth and free surface primary velocity. The CFD predictions of the flow field for the two spirals are attempted to validate against experimental data. The high gravity spiral concentrators show lower flow depths and free surface primary velocities but steep velocities on the outer trough zone compared to that of low gravity spiral concentrators (conventional coal spirals). Among the computationally tested high gravity spirals, higher pitch and higher secondary slope design shows greater flow characteristics.

Aug 24, 2022

By J D. Bryant

The Ernest Henry Copper-Gold mine, the third largest copper deposit in Australia, is located 35 km NE of Cloncurry in the Mt Isa-Cloncurry mineral district of NW Queensland. Ernest Henry Mining Pty Ltd (EHM), a wholly owned subsidiary of Xstrata Copper Australia, operates the mine. Approximately 10.2 Mt of ore grading 1.12 per cent Cu and 0.56 g/t Au were processed during the 2001 - 2002 financial year. The Ernest Henry plant produces copper-gold concentrate, which is trucked to Mt Isa for smelting. The Ernest Henry deposit is a member of the diverse Fe-oxide-(Cu-Au) class of deposits. The orebody is hosted within a sequence of moderately SSE-dipping, intensely altered Paleoproterozoic intermediate metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. Copper (chalcopyrite)-gold mineralisation occurs mainly within the magnetite-biotite-calcite ¦ pyrite matrix of a 250 m + 300 m pipe-like breccia body. The breccia pipe comprises two anastomosing lenses separated by a lower grade, clast-supported breccia zone. Several anastomosing brittle faults affect the macro-geometry of the orebody. Copper grade is proportional to the degree of matrix support in the breccia. The July 2002 Ore Reserve was 88.7 Mt @ 1.0 per cent Cu and 0.5 g/t Au. Resource estimation at Ernest Henry is based on a large database of predominantly diamond drill hole information. Drill spacing is typically 50 m + 50 m. Ordinary kriging is used to estimate Cu, Au, SG and IST (oxidation indicator) into model parent cells of dimension 20 m E + 20 m N + 16 m RL. The block model is comprised of five geological-geochemical domains represented by 3D wireframe surfaces. Zonal control, where samples and blocks are assigned the same domain number, is used to control grade estimation. The geometry of the domains defines hard grade boundaries across strike and soft boundaries along strike A Deep Drilling Project was initiated in August 2002 with the initial aim of testing the down-plunge extension of the orebody to a vertical depth of over 1 km. The encouraging intersections to date have resulted in a significant increase in the mineÆs open pit Mineral Resource together with the identification of an underground Mineral Resource. Added benefits of the project included an expanded and updated geological legend and an improved understanding of the host geological sequence.

Jan 1, 2003