Search Documents

By Michael Trevits

The NIOSH Lake Lynn Laboratory (LLL) is a unique research facility, located about 50 miles southeast of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, that is designed to provide a full-scale mining environment for testing and evaluation of mine health and safety technologies. The LLL occupies more than 400 acres and is composed of surface test and training areas and an underground mine. The Lake Lynn Experimental Mine (LLEM) was built at an abandoned commercial limestone quarry where surface mining ceased in the late 1960's. Later, new underground development was constructed to simulate modern-day coal mining scenarios; including room-and-pillar and longwall mining layouts. In January 1994, a sinkhole opened southeast of the No. 4 Portal of the LLEM and since then, the area of the underground failure and surface deformation has continued to expand and now includes several interconnected sinkholes. A concern developed that the overburden instability could expand and affect the structural integrity of the nearby highwall and the No. 4 Portal. It was unsafe to conduct a detailed underground survey of the mine in this area because the mine roof conditions near the No. 4 Portal had deteriorated significantly. It was decided to investigate the overburden conditions near the No. 4 Portal using ground penetrating radar (GPR). A GPR survey grid was located along an access road that passes over the top of the portal. To delineate the mine conditions near the portal, antennas whose frequency spectra produced pulses centered near 100- and 200-MHz were used. The results of the GPR survey suggests that the overburden rock units appear to be laterally consistent to a depth of about 15-ft. Below that point, the overburden appears to be significantly disturbed and it was hypothesized that this area contains a large roof fall. A follow-up ground truth survey of the mine roof conditions was conducted from the mouth of the portal. It is concluded that the observations and measurements made from the radar records appear to be correct as a large roof fall was observed and measured from the mine portal area.

Jan 1, 2005

By R. Karl Zipf

Multiple seam mining interactions caused by full extraction mining, whether due to undermining or overmining, frequently involve tensile failure of the affected mine roof. The adverse ground control conditions may prevent mining for both safety and economic reasons. Prior researchers have identified the geometric, geologic and mining factors controlling multiple seam mining interactions. This numerical study examines the mechanics of these interactions using a modeling procedure that 1) incorporates the essential constitutive behavior of the rock such as strain- softening of the intact rock and shear and tensile failure along bedding planes and 2) captures the geologic variability of the rock especially the layering of weak and strong rocks and weak bedding planes. Specifically, the numerical study considered the effect of vertical stress, interburden thickness, and the immediate roof quality of the affected seam in both undermining and overmining situations. The models show that for overburden-to-interburden thickness (OBAB) ratios of less than 5, interactions do not occur, and that for OBAB more than 50, extreme interaction is a certainty. In between, the possibility of an interaction was found to depend on gob width-to-interburden thickness ratio, site specific geology and horizontal stress to rock strength ratio in addition to the OBIIB ratio. The models also showed that horizontal stress was profoundly altered well above or below a full extraction area and that these changes are likely to influence the success or failure of multiple seam mining. The role of horizontal stress in multiple seam mining interactions has received little attention in prior investigations. Four factors control the mechanics of multiple seam mining interactions: 1. vertical stress concentration 2. horizontal stress concentration 3. stress re-direction 4. bedding plane slip bands A combination of vertical and horizontal stress increase and high stress gradients in the vicinity of full extraction areas re-orients principal stresses into a very unfavorable direction. This seemingly small stress re-orientation has a profound adverse effect on bedded rock.

Jan 1, 2005

By Kevin M. Connor, O&apos

An example application is presented in which Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) was utilized to monitor roof strata movements during pillar extraction in a potash mine. The study was initiated when Western Ag-Minerals decided to implement secondary mining of pillars in order to extend the life of their Nash Draw Mine. A prototype operation was conducted in one mine panel to assess mining equipment and procedures, and to determine if ground control problems would develop. An instrumentation array was installed by personnel from New Mexico Tech and Western Ag to monitor strata movements, changes in pillar stress and surface subsidence, and these data are being analyzed by the Bureau of Mines. This paper is limited to a discussion of roof-floor convergence and roof strata movement to illustrate the application of TDR to ground control. Plots are presented which demonstrate the capability of distinguishing location, magnitude and mode of rock movement using TDR to interrogate coaxial cables grouted into holes drilled in the roof.

Jan 1, 1990

By Russell C. Frith

Risk-based roadway roof support design is now a critical part of the Australian Coal Industry. Safe and efficient mining demands that roof support be tailored to the prevailing geotechnical conditions and coal mining legislation in New South Wales, Queensland, and Tasmania is clear in requiring that formalized roof support design be undertaken. The assumption of dead-load suspension of an otherwise unstable roof has been used in roadway roof support design for many years. However longevity does not necessarily translate into either a best or even reasonable practice in the current industry, particularly when pro-active strata management systems are now routinely used and reinforcing support design methods are available. The paper discusses why the assumption of dead-load suspension is fundamentally incorrect in almost all instances when pro-active or reinforcing roof support is applied and how it can easily result in misleading and potentially under-designed roof support systems under various circumstances. The commonly used design methodology of balancing the installed axial capacity of long tendons with the assumed ?weight? of a future roof fall is summarized, and several fundamental flaws are identified. The critical area of selecting the design Factor of Safety is also discussed in detail. Accepting that under certain circumstances the roof of a roadway will require it to be ?suspended?, suggestions are given for how a robust support system can be developed, designed and applied.

Jan 1, 2011

By William B. Beerbower

When full length resin grouted bolts were introduced into U. S. coal mines some 11 years ago, it was assumed that safety would be the primary benefit. There is ample testimony to substantiate the safety factor as an important reason for using resin roof bolts. More recently, it has been determined that many coal operators not only concur with the safety consideration but also benefit economically from the safer working conditions resulting from a reduction in roof falls. IMPROVED SAFETY Some typical roof fall reduction experiences with resin bolting follow: ? Western Kentucky Mine - Resin bolting reduced roof falls by 80%. ? Southern West Virginia Mine - Experienced 141 roof falls between 1971 and 1972. In 1973 with resin bolting, roof falls were reduced 85%. ? Western Pennsylvania Mine - In 1973 had 59 roof falls with mechanical bolts. During the same period of 1974 with resin, only 19 falls were experienced - a reduction of 66%. The overall experience with resin bolted roof support has been an average 50% reduction in roof falls. Long term, this can translate into improved worker morale. As a matter of fact, a general mine foreman at the same Southern West Virginia mine mentioned above commented that improved miner morale was noticeable following the introduction of resin bolting. HOW GREATER SAFETY CAN BE COMBINED WITH INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY IN COAL MINING OPERATIONS Experience has also shown that a reduction of roof falls with resin bolting has resulted in increased production for many coal operators. Some typical examples with mines using resin bolting follow: ? Western Kentucky Mine - Resin bolting contributed to increasing production from 7000 to 11,000 tons per day, due to a 80% reduction in roof falls. This was accomplished in part by a reduction of 50% in timbering requirements and the reassignment of three roof fall cleanup crews to coal production. ? Pennsylvania Mine - Following resin bolting introduction the section showed a 50% increase in production. ? Central West Virginia Mine - Continuous miner production averaged 6 cuts per unit shift prior to resin bolting. Reduction of cleanup time, resulting from improved roof support with resin bolting, increased production to an average of 9 cuts per unit shift. PROPERTIES OF RESIN BOLTING SYSTEMS Several of the important properties of resin bolting systems which contribute to its improved performance are listed below: ? Full length anchored resin bolts and many resin anchored, point anchored bolts provide effective resistance to changing rock strata stresses throughout their length, thereby improving stabilization of rock strata over long periods of time. ? Individual layers of rock are anchored into a single high strength beam providing excellent resistance to vertical and lateral strata movement, the most common cause of roof failure. ? Moisture cannot corrode the fully grouted bolt. ? Has twice the pull strength of mechanical bolts (See Figure 1)

Jan 1, 1982

By Marcel0 Mondring

Transportation and the logistic requirements are set very high for the German coal mining industry. Short transportation resources, crowded quarters, and long transportation distances to destinations are some basic conditions that logistic employees of the mines have to deal with. Therefore, in the context of these processes, human effort and technology are faced with great challenges. There can be a total of 300 transport units, depending on the size of the mine. Every day, they are moved through a nearby 150-km-long transportation network of floor and monorail tracks. Of these transport units, 150 are new, and the other 150 units are split into cross traffic units that are moved only in the underground and return travel units. Beside track-bounded transports, all material transports take place in the shaft. As a result, many involuntary transports and changes in the means of transportation make the daily work more difficult. Typical transports in the shaft include the supply of new materials from above to below, as well as returnable goods from below to above. Cross traffics throughout several levels, which are rather rare, would have to be handled above the shaft. Due to limited shaft capacity, these cross traffics should be avoided when possible. Based on the gas resources in coalmine slopes, track-bounded transports using monorails (powered by diesel or rechargeable means) are preferred. This depends on the road degree, the depth, and track cross section of the shaft/slope. The variety of the material spectrum includes more than 100,000 different types of material.

Jan 1, 2014

By Zach G. Agioutantis

The prediction of ground movements due to underground mining using the influence function method is a mature technology, widely used by researchers and planning engineers around the world. Surface strain, either tensile or compressive, is an important indicator of potential impacts on structures such as buildings, bodies of water, pipelines, railway and power lines, and tailings dams. Calculation of static or dynamic surface strains, for varying surface terrains and slopes, should be accurately predicted and be independent of the methodology applied for the calculation. This paper discusses and compares the development of horizontal and ground strains on the surface due to underground mining for different surface topologies (sloping terrain, monitoring lines, etc.) and presents the steps needed to ensure accurate calculations. Examples are given to demonstrate how ground strains can be calculated for one- and two-dimensional gridded surfaces.

Jan 1, 2013

By A. H. PH. D Wilson

Compared to the rocks encountered in, say, metalliferous mining or tunnel drivage in igneous and metamorphic rocks, the strata associated with the coal measures are relatively soft. If excavations are made at depths greater than one or two hundred metres, zones of fractured or yielded rock develop around the openings. The stress which can be taken by yielded rock at the boundary of an opening is low, but because of the friction present between the fragments or particles, the sustainable stress rises rapidly with distance from the opening until sufficient confinement has been developed to prevent failure of the rock in the first place. Thereafter the laws of elasticity will apply and increasing distance will reduce the stress field until conditions consistent with the cover load are reached. For rocks which maintain their elastic condition right to the edge of an opening, finite element analysis and similar techniques have proved successful in determining the distribution of stress around the opening. This approach, however, is not successful when a yield zone is introduced between the elastic zone and the opening. Nevertheless, some estimate is required if help is to be given in the siting of roadways and in the determination of adequate pillar sizes. This matter is of particular importance in the planning of new mines especially if retreat faces are involved, as extensive roadway drivage must be planned and executed before experience of the effects of face extraction is gained. In 1977, the author published [I] a method based on 'stress balance'. The total aggregate downward load over a large area will remain that of the cover load even after part of the coal seam has been removed. Any rise in stress in ribsides and pillars must be offset by an equivalent stress reduction across roadways and other areas of extraction, and vice versa. Knowledge of one can lead to an estimate of the other, provided the general form of the stress distribution can be postulated. It is the object of this paper to revue the method in more detail and to give further examples of its successful application.

Jan 1, 1981

By Selmar A. Oliveira

"Safe mine closure is an important step in the mining lifecycle. Plans for safe and efficient closure should begin at the inception of mining. Ideally, closure occurs when the reserve has been depleted. However, when the abandonment of a mine occurs prior to the depletion of the reserve, several problems arise which need to be treated. This situation occurred at Verdinho Mine, located in the state of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Verdinho Mine is a coal mine that operated for more than 40 years without had backfill technologies applied. Soon before the exhaustion of the reserves, it was abandoned by the owners without proper closure. As a result, the Federal Public Ministry filed a public civil action to promote proper closure. Several parties are currently involved, including the National Department of Mineral Production (DNPM), the mining regulator of the Brazilian Government. To meet the judicial determination, a cooperation agreement was initiated between DNPM and the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) to identify and to monitor parameters which could result hazard due flooding mine, to model the various conditions to minimize the impact of flooding caused by total abandonment. Many processes must be planned and planned early in mining operations, and these processes must be performed over the life of the mine. Financial resources must be guaranteed by a specific fund fueled by operating revenues. When these resources are not properly employed, costs and technical difficulties prevent proper closure progress. If the removal of subsoil equipment, treatment and control of groundwater, regeneration of the surface, and closure of openings are not done correctly, there can be environmental, social, and stability impacts over time. To avoid this in the future, a detailed study is being performed at the Verdinho Underground Coal Mine on how to appropriately implement mine closure and monitoring procedures. This study is being conducted in response to a lawsuit filed by the Federal Public Prosecutor’s Office. INTRODUCTION The nature of the Mining Industry is such that all mining is a temporary activity, where the operational life of a mine is defined by the final project scope. The operating life of a mine lasts from a few years to several decades. Mine closures occur once the mineral resource at a working mine is exhausted, or operations are no longer profitable. Mine closure plans are required by most regulatory agencies worldwide, such as the Mineral Production National Department (DNPM) in Brazil."

Jan 1, 2017

By Ihsan B. Tulu, Keith A. Heasley, Aanand Nandula

"The objective of this paper is to present the development of a software tool that will assist in an area calculation of the Analysis of Roof Bolting Systems (ARBS) support intensity while incorporating more detailed geology, stress, and intersection span input. In this area ARBS tool, a detailed CMRR distribution can be determined from the available geologic database at the mine. In addition, the overburden and multiple-seam stresses, as obtained from the boundary-element program LaModel, can be converted to a “pseudo-depth” which is then used as the depth input to the area ARBS calculation. Finally, the section-specific intersection spans can be determined from the mine design for input to the calculation. All this detailed area input information for ARBS is handled by the latest version of the Stability Mapping (StabMap) program, which now outputs an area ARBS suggested support density given the required input parameters. This final ARBS grid can be plotted, analyzed and overlaid on the mine map for optimum use in support design and for presentation to production personnel.INTRODUCTIONSince the inception of roof bolts in the 1940s, there has been a lack of a universally accepted roof bolting design method (Mark, 2002; Mark and Pappas, 2012). To address this situation, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Hazard (NIOSH) developed roof support design guidelines, which were incorporated into a computer program called the Analysis of Roof Bolting Systems (ARBS). These guidelines were based on the effects of roof quality, stress, and mine geometry (Mark, Molinda and Dolinar, 2001). The roof rock quality in ARBS is represented by the Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR), the depth is used as a surrogate for the stress, and the intersection span serves to represent the mine geometry (Mark, Molinda and Dolinar, 2001). These three input parameters are used in the fundamental, empirically derived equation of ARBS to calculate a required support density factor, called ARBS, (Mark, Molinda and Dolinar, 2001):"

Jan 1, 2018

By Amirhossein Molavi Tabrizi

In this paper we introduce a realistic model for mine openings that explicitly considers the effects of local irregular topography. Also, we consider the effect of entry orientation and rock anisotropy on the induced stress fields around mine openings under the given in-situ stress field. A triangular mesh formulation is derived for representing complicated irregular surface topography and underground openings. Each element contains three internal collocation nodes. Parts of the surface which are far from the mine openings are discretized by infinite elements. The rectangular infinite elements with three internal nodes are introduced specifically for this problem so they are compatible with the triangular elements. With the corresponding boundary element method (BEM) formulation, we then investigate the combined effect of the topography and entry orientation on the stress fields induced by openings in anisotropic rocks under in-situ stresses. A single rectangular opening in the anisotropic ground with topography and in-situ stresses is simulated using data from the Carroll Hollow mine in Ohio. The results of these simulations show that topography, rock anisotropy, orientation of the regional stress field and mine opening geometry all have appreciable effects on the stress fields around underground openings, yet these factors can all be accounted for in an efficient code with no need to discretize the model domain. Future applications using this new BEM formulation will provide useful guidance on selecting the optimal opening orientation in the mine in order to minimize undesirable stress concentrations around underground mine workings.

Jan 1, 2014

By Daniel W. H. Su

"This paper presents results from a recent study conducted to evaluate the effects of longwall-induced stresses and deformations on the mechanical integrity of shale gas wells drilled over a longwall abutment pillar. The primary objective is to demonstrate that a properly constructed gas well in a standard longwall mining abutment pillar can maintain mechanical integrity during and after mining operations. Successful designs would allow for the safe recovery of both coal and gas reserves. Major elements of this comprehensive study include: (1) modeling of rock movements to predict impacts on gas wells, (2) measurements of actual rock movements at the surface and in the subsurface, (3) measurements of actual impacts on test wells designed similarly to real shale gas wells, ( 4) comparison of modeling results to actual rock movements to validate the model, and (5) employing the validated models to evaluate various casing and cementing designs to minimize casing deformations and absorb longwall-induced strains along the intermediate and production casings.A study site was selected over a southwestern Pennsylvania coal mine, which extracts 1,500-ft-wide longwall faces under about 600 feet of cover. Four test wells and four monitoring wells were drilled and installed over an abutment pillar with 125-ft by 275-ft centers. The four test wells were drilled to a depth of 642 ft, or 42 ft below the Pittsburgh seam, and were designed like a real shale gas well, except that only three casings (namely the surface, water protection and coal protection casings) were installed in each well. Casing steel grades, wellbore diameters and annular spaces were purposely varied in each of the four test wells to evaluate the effect of different well designs. The four monitoring wells - one vertical extensometer and three in-place inclinometers (IPI) - were drilled to different depths to measure the vertical settlement and horizontal displacements as a result of longwall mining on both sides of the abutment pillar. In addition to the test wells and monitoring wells, surface subsidence measurements and underground coal pillar pressure measurements were conducted as the 1,500-ft-wide longwall panels on the south and north sides of the abutment pillar mined by."

Jan 1, 2016

By Kresho Galovich

Quinsam Coal Mine located in Vancouver Island, BC, Canada is mining the No. 1 coal seam at the 2 North/3 North mine and the No. 3 coal seam at 4 South Mine. This paper describes its geology and structure, mining and processing, development and depillaring practices as well as methods of roof supports under various geological conditions.

Jan 1, 2005

By Naj Aziz

n Australia, the common method of laboratory testing of bolt for load transfer capacity determination is by short encapsulation push testing. Some concerns are raised about the validity of the test methodology, as the method does not reflect on the actual load transfer characteristics of bolt in real field situation. Thus, laboratory testes were carried out to examine the load transfer mechanisms of bolts in both the push and pull conditions. Tests were conducted by shearing a short resin encapsulated bolt out of a cylindrical steel sleeve. Three types of bolts with different surface profile configurations were tested. The study was complemented with numerical simulation of the test methods. Irrespective of bolt type the average shear load and shear stress values were found to be greater in push test, and the displacement at peak shear load was greater in pull test. The average shear stifhess values were greater in push test. The numerical simulation of the bolts provided a clear understanding of the stresses and strains generated by different bolt profiles during both the pull and pull testing process, thus allowing a better appreciation of the load transfer mechanism process.

Jan 1, 2005

By Terry Medhurst

Geophysical logging is routinely undertaken as part of most Australian coal mining exploration programs. Typically, the main application is the determination of coal seam depth and the qualitative estimation of coal quality, lithology and rock strength. For rock strength estimation, sonic transit times relate to the elastic properties of the rock and provide a general correlation with uniaxial compressive strength. However, experience has shown that site-specific relationships are necessary to account for different geological environments. In this paper we describe results from a series of recent studies that have provided a more comprehensive method of geotechnical strata characterisation using detailed lithological interpretation and rock property estimation from borehole logs. This has resulted in an improved method of estimating rock strength via the determination of the proportions of quartz and clay plus the porosity. We also propose a rock classification scheme based on geophysical log analysis. This builds on the existing acceptance of the sonic log as an indicator of rock strength and adds scores according to the moisture, cohesion, porosity and quartz content inferred from the geophysical logs. The new scheme can be related to existing mapping based schemes such as CMRR and the Q-system.

Jan 1, 2005

By Graham Daws

The introduction of UK rock bolting technology has been applied in many large underground coal mines around the world. This paper explains the methods that have been applied for its successful introduction and discusses several case studies. It does not give fine detail but is intended to allow decision makers to gain a basic understanding of the method used to introduce rock bolting to a mine.

Jan 1, 2011

By Shugang Li

The layout and efficiency of the degasification system is heavily dependent on the distribution of and the methane migrating mechanism in the mining induced fractures in the overburden strata In this paper, physical modeling and numerical simulation are employed to study the mining-induced fracture zones and the stress distribution in these zones. The physical models show that both the fracture and compaction zones form a parabolic shape in the over- burden strata along the panel transverse direction. When this is generalized to the panel longitudinal direction, the shape of the mining induced fracture zone over the longwall gob can be represented by a 3-D elliptic paraboloid function. Through the observation of bed separation, fracture density and distribution pattern in the physical models, it is believed that the development of the parabolic fracture zone can be divided into three distinguishable phases. The expansion characteristics and sizes of the fracture zones can be estimated. The numerical stimulation studies can be used to estimate the extent of the stress release zones. The stress release zones can be also divided into a high compressive stress - fracture closure zone, stress relieved - fracture expansion zone, and intact zone. The methane desorption model is then used to analyze the methane migrating pattern in the fracture zone. The developed model has been verified by the results of a longwall gob degasification tests at a coal mine in Yangquan, China with a fair agreement. Such studies show that the model can provide a reasonable accurate tool for designing the gob-well degasification system for longwall mining operations.

Jan 1, 2005

By Ezzeddin Bakhtavar

There are several geotechnical challenges and risks inherent in the interaction between the open-pit and block cave mining environments. This is especially true when they have to work simultaneously for a short time, as well as when only the caving operation is continued. Some of these challenges and risks include the induced zones of stress due to the large and deep open-pit, instability of the slope, instability of the crown pillar and water inflows, subsidence, and sometimes instability of the main accesses to the block cave portion of the mine. These challenges usually occur due to cave propagation. In this paper, these geotechnical challenges and associated risks have been studied and discussed. It was concluded that the majority of the mentioned geotechnical risks could be decreased, and often eliminated, by considering the appropriate dimensions of a stable crown pillar, especially in simultaneously working open-pit and block caving operations.

Jan 1, 2011

By D. Bigby

The current British Standard on rock reinforcement components used in coal mining (BS7861:1996) employs the axial double embedment tensile PET) test to determine the main system load transfer performance criteria, in terms of bond strength and stiffbess. This test involves measurement of load/displacement characteristics of a tendon fully grouted into internally threaded thick-walled steel tubes. Part 1 of the Standard covers rock bolting systems and Part 2 covers birdcaged cable bolting systems. Both parts are highly prescriptive, defining a specific design of bar (AT) and cable bolt (birdcaged). In 2000, it was agreed by the UK Rockbolt Research Liaison Committee that Part 1 of the Standard should be revised to allow further industry innovation of bolts and resins. Amongst other aspects, it was recognised that the double embedment test was limited by its inability to examine load transfer between the bolt and the host rock and the UK Health and Safety Executive commissioned an RMT research project to develop a new test to replace the DET test. The new test, the Laboratory Short Encapsulation Pull (LSEP) test has now been incorporated into a draft revision of BS7861 Part1 which has been issued for industry wide consultation. In 2003, it was agreed to begin revision of Part 2 of the Standard to encompass the many types of long tendon reinforcement which were, by then, being used in the UK coal mining industry. These included flexible bolts, deformed strands and tensionable systems encapsulated with resin, cementitious grout and combinations of the two. A second RMT research project was funded by the HSE to examine adapting the Laboratory Short Encapsulation Pull Test for the revised long tendon Standard. This project is nearing completion and a revised Part 2 of the Standard is being drafted. This paper presents some of the results of the two research projects, describes the laboratory tests and acceptance criteria developed and discusses the implications of the research on improving the understanding of reinforcement performance and its characterisation. In particular it shows how the new test can reveal very different load transfer characteristics to the double embedment test, as it takes the load transfer at the holefrock wall into account.

Jan 1, 2005

By Yunxin Qiu

A new technology has been introduced - the use of the High-Water Solidifying Material for providing pumped roadside supports to maintain a roadway for re-use in longwall retreating. As a gob edge support, its initial use at Hebi No. I Colliery was successful, providing acceptable performances in support and control of convergences and lateral closures of the gob-edge roadways. This acceptability applied to both first use and re-use when the roadway became a gateroad for the adjoining longwall, remaining stable throughout the associated loadings and convergences. The technology promises economic and social benefits.

Jan 1, 1992