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By Ankit Jha, Javad Sattarvand, Aaron Young

Blockchains are one of the prominent disruptive technologies that are being implemented in several disciplines. The application of blockchains in the mining and mineral industry can provide utility for several processes especially when the industry is undertaking digital transformation. The governing principles of blockchain technology are applicable in undertaking transformation in several processes within the mining industry. This study investigates the applications of blockchain technology within the realms of the mining industry and identifies key areas of implementation. A systematic review of publications on academic platforms relating to blockchain technology in the mining industry did not retrieve a considerable number of articles. Consequently, a thorough review of white papers and articles authored by individuals on use cases within the mining industry is compiled and presented in this manuscript. This paper identifies all the potential areas within the mining industry where blockchains could provide value and improve processes through their implementation. The broad area of implementation of blockchains includes supply chain, traceability in spare parts, contract management, regulatory compliance, and cyber security.

Nov 23, 2023

By R. E. Krauss

The McLaughlin Mine is a world class epithermal gold deposit located in the coastal thrust fault of Northern California, U.S.A. Homestake adopted a proactive strategy in the permitting of the Mine. Extensive environmental base line studies were undertaken. Engineering and process alternatives were evaluated for environmental impact along with other factors. A unique pressure oxidation process was selected. Screening studies were conducted as a basis for the selection of waste rock and tailings disposal sites. Project engineering and permitting were fast tracked. Construction required eighteen months and the first gold bar was poured in Parch of 1985, six years after the initial discovery. Project facilities are designed and operated so as to minimize environmental impacts. A comprehensive monitering program demonstrates permit compliance. Reclamation of the site is ongoing throughout the Mine?s twenty year life. Non-mined lands are managed to maximize wildlife habitat value.

Jan 1, 1990

By Donald W. Gentry

This section deals with one of the most fascinating aspects of mining the evaluation of mine investment opportunities. Be-fore proceeding further, it is important to clarify the meaning of some fundamental terms used frequently in the text. 6.0.1.1 Mine Valuation vs. Evaluation The words "valuation" and "evaluation" in a mining context are often used interchangeably. However, for the purposes of this section, a distinction is made between the two terms in accordance with commonly accepted practice. The word valuation in a mining project context has the rather narrow meaning of placing a dollar or other currency value on the worth of the project as a whole. In other words, the value of a mining project refers to a measure of the desirability of ownership of that property. As such, the major item of interest is, "what is the mine worth?," or `what is the value of the mine?" The value of a mining project may actually be determined in the marketplace at any specific point in time, or it may be estimated by one of several methods. The topic of mine valuation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.1. The word evaluation in a mining project context connotes the broader meaning of determining the numerical values of all

Jan 1, 2008

By Bill Mariucci, Gary Almeraris

All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Information contained in this work has been obtained by SME, Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SME nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither SME nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SME and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any statement or views presented here are those of individual authors and are not necessarily those of the SME. The mention of trade names for commercial products does not imply the approval or endorsement of SME.

Dec 1, 2009

By J. Swanepoel, J. H. van Laar, J. C. Vosloo, W. A. Pelser

Deep-level underground mining costs in South Africa are continuously rising due to the increased depth at which gold is being mined, resulting in a rise in virgin rock temperature and an increase in cooling requirements. Therefore, mines must evaluate various ventilation and cooling optimisation projects required to be implemented throughout their life of mine (LOM). This study develops a method to identify and prioritise large capital expenditure (CAPEX) underground environmental improvement projects, to improve thermal comfort underground. The solution presents a ‘multi-criteria decision-making’ (MCDM) process, incorporating the ‘analytic hierarchy process’ (AHP) and the ‘technique for order performance by similarity to ideal solution’ (TOPSIS) into the method to provide for scientific decision-making. These projects are evaluated based on four criteria, namely project risk, the impact on the underground thermal comfort, cost, and implementation time. This study’s solution uses ventilation simulations to determine the impact of the projects on the underground environment. The identification and evaluation of an environmental improvement project to best suit the current economic climate, while improving underground conditions and decreasing the safety risk is an essential aspect of the solution developed in this study. The method was implemented on a mechanised deep-level underground mine and showed that surface refrigeration is the most suitable alternative, which was implemented at the case study mine as validation of the developed solution. The study proves that the MCDM method is an adequate solution to incorporate subjective criteria into the decision-making process, resulting in a scientific and structured approach to making significant and complex decisions.

Feb 17, 2023

The Environmental Session will consist of five papers dealing with various aspects of trace elements associated with coal. Analytical procedures to determine the amounts of trace elements will be discussed. Other papers will deal with trace elements in streams downstream from coal mines, potential pollution from wastes from coal preparation plants, potential recovery of trace elements, and potential pollution from trace elements as a result of the combustion of coal.

Jan 1, 1979

By Raja V. Ramani

Discussion in this section of the Handbook is limited to the working environment of miners, the mine workers themselves, and the machines used in mining (Fig. 11.0.1). The contents emphasize personnel health and safety aspects and engineering design and control practices to ensure a productive health and safety environment. Reference is to the health and safety of the individual miners as well as to the safety of the working environment. This Handbook also contains references to health and safety regulations in Chapter 3.2 and environmental protection in Chapters 3.4 and 7.3.

Jan 1, 2008

By B. A. Filas, H. N. Lammers

Responsible environmental, social, and governance (ESG) practices are not new to mining. It is the ESG acronym that has become the “flavor-of-the-day” with the stock markets, accounting firms, and investment strategists. This increased interest from the financial sector has heightened executive awareness and accountability to where corporate leadership and directors are proactively prioritizing ESG issues from the top down within their companies. This paper aims to convey what the authors believe one needs to know to be able to conduct and prepare effective ESG audits and reports. The emphasis is on how ESG fits within the mining sector, some of the ways that many mining companies have been practicing ESG responsibility for decades, the importance of effective communications with stakeholders, and the roles that regulatory and international lending institutions play in enhancing ESG practice on a global scale as a precursor to the discussion on ESG auditing and reporting. Without this background, the ESG audit may become a purely academic exercise.

Feb 1, 2023

By Meyer Klein

Decision theory is the formal theory of the logic of decisions in view of the decision maker's objectives, preferences, I beliefs, and available information, It usually deals with weighty economic problems involving irrevocable (or costly to reverse) decisions. Capital investment planning problems constitute an instance par excellence for application of the decision theory concepts. Decision theory as it is presently conceived has evolved in recent years. At first it concentrated on decisions in the face of total lack of information and on games with intelligent adversaries. The results of these efforts proved theoretically interesting, but practically of little applicability. In the last few years, stress has shifted to the introduction of subjective probabilities and preferences, and the results have been eminently successful in applications both in government and with- in business firms in the resolution of complex problems.

Jan 1, 1970

By CHRISTOPHER D. HEBERT, SCOTT W. HOFFMAN

All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Information contained in this work has been obtained by SME, Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SME nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither SME nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SME and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any statement or views presented here are those of individual authors and are not necessarily those of the SME. The mention of trade names for commercial products does not imply the approval or endorsement of SME.

Dec 1, 2019

By F. Mielli

Ranging between 20% and 40% of the typical mining operational costs, energy in mining operations is a growing concern for the industry. However, this concern is a complex, multi-faceted variable that involves government regulations, societal pressures, cost and competitiveness. A mining company successful in energy efficiency is becoming the standard of a successful company. The suggested energy strategy in mining and mineral processing operations has to follow a well structured approach that entails the following: ? Understanding where energy is being used and why, ? Recommending and implement energy conservation measures, ? Driving visibility to targets and results, ? Leveraging the energy spend across the enterprise, ? Developing a robust energy and sustainability strategy.

Jan 1, 2012

By Douglas W. Fuerstenau, Pradip Pradip

The design and development of selective flotation collectors has been the key to the remarkable success of flotation in beneficiating complex, difficult-to-process ores. Sustained research efforts in the field over the past hundred years have led to delineating the scientific basis of selective mineral flotation in terms of the crystal chemistry and the surface and colloid chemistry of minerals including their solubility, and the aqueous solution chemistry of added reagents. It is now well-established that the electrical double layer theory (EDL) is the most powerful means of quantifying the relative strength of mineral-reagent interactions in the case of nonsulfide minerals. We illustrate the utility and the power of the EDL in delineating the science underlying selective mineral flotation with the help of a few examples taken from our own work, in particular on the selective flotation of rare-earth minerals (bastnaesite) from associated semisoluble minerals (barite and calcite) using alkyl hydroxamate collectors and the flotation separation of lithium-containing minerals (spodumene) from associated alumino-silicate minerals with oleate (fatty acids). Both of these mineral separation systems are of contemporary research interest and of immense value to the industry today. Recent advances in utilizing molecular modeling computations, particularly in the context of quantifying the effect of crystal chemistry and the relative distribution of adsorption sites available on mineral cleavage planes, are also reviewed.

By George H. Willis

In the second half of the nineteenth century, bimetallism progressively replaced by gold standard. After World War I and 1931-33 depression, gold mainly reserved for official international transactions and internal use restricted. Changes since 1971 have shrunk official international use of gold. International payments deficits and surpluses now financed by private and official credit, rarely by gold. Historical review covers evolution of: (1) internal and external private use, (2) internal official use, (3) external official use, (4) role in IMF and (5) use as unit of account.

Jan 1, 1978

By Jack E. Brockway

As tunnel boring machine technology has expanded, so has its range of application. Tunneling machines (TBM's) are tackling tasks today that fifteen years ago were considered "inappropriate". A case in point is incline/decline TBM boring. An incline or decline bore presents peculiar design considerations that differentiate it from a horizontal bore. This paper reviews those design considerations as they apply to TBM's, backup, muck handling and other tunneling subsystems. In addition, several abbreviated case studies are presented. By the review of real life tunneling techniques as well as design considerations, the "appropriateness" of TBM incline/ decline boring today becomes apparent. INCLINE Introduction In contemplating the impact of incline versus horizontal tunnel boring system design, the obvious consideration is gravity. Up-hill boring can be quite different than horizontal boring. Muck, water and machine weight all tend to slide down the incline. In addition, hydraulic and lubrication systems if unaltered, will find their fluids pooled in the lower corners contentedly ignoring such higher elevation items as gears and bearings. In order to address this inherent gravity problem, a review of

Jan 1, 1983

By A. F. Marques

The Azores islands are located on a triple junction where the American, African (AFR), and Euroasian (EUR) plates meet. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR), oriented N-S, represents two branches of the T; an E-W branch defines the EUR/AFR boundary called the Terceira Rift. The nature and structure of this plate boundary, as well as the dynamics of the interaction of tectonics and volcanism remain unconstrained. The Azores plateau is seated on a mantle domain of anomalously low seismic S-wave velocities, and gravity and geoid anomalies, where the apparent thick crust is thought to relate to larger degrees of melting initiated at greater depths [1]. The cause of these anomalies is controversial but many authors consider the presence of an anomalously hot/wet enriched mantle probably supplied by a plume [2]. The geochemistry of the subaerial and most submarine lavas from the plateau reinforces the plume model beneath the Azores [3-4]. The origin, size and present location of the plume is under debate but an area near Terceira is the favoured plume centre [5]. [ ] SEAFLOOR HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN THE AZORES AREA (36ºN ? 40ºN) More than 150 active and fossil hydrothermal systems are known in the oceanic seafloor [6]. Many more are yet to be found on vast oceanic areas that haven?t been explored [7]. Ever increasing knowledge shows that modern seafloor hydrothermal systems can be hosted in felsic to ultramafic rocks, vary in size and shape and exhibit diverse amounts of sediment cover

Jan 1, 2011

The Canadian concept for nuclear fuel waste disposal is being assessed by AECL Research in a series of experiments at its Underground Research Laboratory (URL) near Lac du Bonnet. Manitoba, Canada. As pan of this research, the Mine-by Experiment has been designed to obtain information on rock mass behavior, the development of an excavation-induced damage zone and failure mechanisms around a circular bored tunnel. An iterative design approach was used to effectively reconcile the experiment objectives and construction logistics. This paper discusses the design considerations and construction methodology adopted on the project.

Jan 1, 1991

By W. J. Schitt

Section 15 covers a loose collection of topics that involve water in some way. The chapters in this section include Dredge and Placer Mining (Chapter 15.1), Solution Mining: Surface Techniques (Chapter 15.2), and Solution Mining: In Situ Techniques (Chapter 15.3). The dredge and placer systems involve water in several forms. The segment on hydraulicking or hydrosluicing discusses the use of monitors to direct high-pressure water jets to move material. As such, this represents an alternative to mechanical breakage, loading, and hauling. This chapter also covers placer mining (except dry placering) where the water provides the medium that promotes the separation of minerals based on their density and other settling characteristics. Thus placer mining is generally limited to concentration of gold, tin ore, diamonds, and other heavy minerals that are already liberated and are contained in a less dense matrix. The third topic, straight forward dredging, as in sand and gravel operations, involves water only in an incidental way. Here water simply covers the minerals of interest. Thus the dredging system need only lift a payload from the submerged location to the surface for further processing or handling

Jan 1, 2008

By Michael A. Piepenburg

The East Side Access (ESA) Project will extend Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) into midtown Manhattan via 11 km of tunnels, a new terminal station and associated support facilities. In addition to the hard-rock tunneling currently underway in Manhattan, soft-ground tunnels in Queens will traverse beneath Amtrak?s Sunnyside Yard and Harold Interlocking, the busiest rail interlocking in North America. This paper details ESA?s coordinated approach to interfacing with both Amtrak and LIRR with regard to the planned tunnels, shafts and related construction beneath or adjacent to the operating railroads. This interface includes integration of railroad staff, extensive presentations, reviews and agreements with the railroads regarding settlement mitigation, real-time automated geo-instrumentation monitoring, ground improvement, and geotechnical/environmental controls.

By William L. Young

There is an old saying in Canada: "Mines are made as much as discovered." What follows is Young's perception of his experience developing and financing the Cochrane Hill gold mine project. In 1974, I came back from rutile and zircon exploration and mining in Australia. I became interested in a copper, lead, and zinc project in the Bathurst District, New Brunswick. Much field work had already been done but I was convinced that a reinterpretation of the geophysical work left room to enlarge on the known mineralization. So, with my own money I put a property deal together, found an underwriter willing to raise $100,000, and had a lawyer produce a prospectus. The prospectus was ultimately accepted for filing by the Ontario Securities Commission and I acquired funding and began work. It did not take many drill holes to determine that the interpretation was not geologically valid. However, while drilling was going on, geophysical and geochemical explorations indicated interesting anomalous zones elsewhere on the property. But by now the base metal market climate had soured and the $50,000 I had left was not enough to evaluate the new results. So I decided to farm out the property. A data folio was produced and the property was optioned to a major mining company, with Northumberland Mines Ltd. retaining a 20% free, carried interest. By 1976, the market for junior issues was so bad no under¬writer would even talk to a geologist and I still had the $50,000 in the bank and was looking for something to initiate. A Project That Went Nowhere Market research indicated that the Toronto area imported fine calcium carbonate fillers from Georgia, Alabama, and Vermont. I was aware of the specs and the fact that there is a large marble belt in Eastern Ontario. After some prospecting, I found an interesting deposit. The product was slightly high in silica and low on brightness. Research work eliminated the silica and corrected the brightness. So, with insufficient money we launched a feasibility study. This included diamond drilling, bulk sampling, special fine grinding and air classification tests, and an in-depth market survey. Our product was as good or better than those on the market. Our advantage was that delivery could be made by a two-hour truck haul to the customer. The present system of rail delivery had many problems, especially in winter. Despite everything looking rosy, we ran into a stone wall. The underwriters were singularly unimpressed because the public saw little glamour in a substance most people had never heard of. The issue would have been difficult-if not impossible-to sell. Banks and government agencies took the position that if we could get long term take-or-pay contracts then they would lend the required capital. None of the suppliers, however, would even consider a contract until production had begun and they could evaluate the production material. It was a classic "catch 22" situation. I have gone into this in some detail to show how tough the industrial mineral market can be. We eventually optioned this calcium carbonate property to a major corporation. The option agreement would give us a free, carried 15% and the right to buy up to 40% for contributing 25% of the production costs. But the experience left my company in poor financial shape. To survive, I think the entrepreneur-geologist must always have at least one project in reserve, an emergency plan. I had been searching out a new project to work on, after the calcium carbonate option was wrapped up. It was gold. Gold intrigued me and I knew quite a bit about Nova Scotian gold. I felt that with any rise in price, many of the former high-grade gold mines would have interesting potential for the larger, low grade portions of the deposits. That is how I happened on Cochrane Hill, where much work had been done in the early 1970s when gold as $4.82/g ($150/ oz). This time my timing was good. No sooner had Northumberland signed an option agreement than gold prices started to rise. In six months, they went to $27.331g ($850/oz). Even so, financing gold prospects in early 1980 was still not easy. It had been years since gold financing had been undertaken. A whole new generation of investors, with no knowledge of gold mining, had grown up. So, with accounting and legal council, we decided on a semiprivate "seed money" offering. Under the new Ontario Securities Act, this was a new-and partly tax sheltered-concept. At the time, it was very innovative.

Jan 6, 1982

By Mark Lawshe, Shosie Serata

The conventional method of mining underground, using narrow rooms and wide pillars, has proven to be poorly adapted to the powerful earth forces that act on underground openings. The high costs of roof bolting, timbering, steel arching, and other means of artificial roof support for both room-and--pillar operations and longwall gate roadways attest to the limitations of traditional mine design. Too often, productivity halts when corners buckle under "cutter roof' stresses, floors heave, and roof strata fall. In the 1960s, an entirely different approach to strata control was developed. The Stress Control Method (SCM) stabilizes failing roofs and heaving floors by removing the cause of failure - highly concentrated stresses around the openings. This is achieved by regrouping three to 10 rooms into a single entry where the rooms are separated by very narrow yielding but stable pillars. SCM employs a specified excavation sequence to redirect earth pressures away from the mine openings. The yield pillars act as scaffolding until a permanently protective secondary stress envelope forms around the entry (lower part of Fig. 1). The result is a dramatic improvement in roof stability and a significant reduction in artificial support costs. Some roof bolting must still be done, mainly to meet Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) requirements. Potash, salt, coal mining The stress control method was first applied to the deep potash mines of Saskatchewan. The new SCM design actually increased room widths to enlarge the stress envelope, redistributing the stress concentration away from the entries (Serata and Schultz, 1972). This resulted in a turnaround from pervasive roof fall/floor heave conditions that threatened operations in the eight new mines opened in the Saskatchewan potash field during the 1960s. In addition to eliminating all roof bolting, SCM successfully stabilized ground conditions and substantially increased productivity over the original design (Serata, 1976, 1982). Similarly, the deep Boulby potash mine of Yorkshire, England, was about to close after various conventional means of combating roof failure had failed. An SCM test area was excavated that resulted in the ground quickly stabilizing without need o artificial support (Serata, 1982; Chilton and Laird, 1982). Another example is the Diamond Crystal salt mine in Louisiana. Here, multiple level mining was being extended from the third to the fourth level downward in the Jefferson Island salt dome. Extensive roof failure was occurring at 396 m (1300 ft) ii the third level. SCM design principles in creased the room size from 24 to 49 m (80 t( 160 ft) on the fourth level at a depth of 457 m (1500 ft). This unprecedented expansion of room width was first questioned and later ap¬proved by MS HA, which expressed satisfaction in seeing the improvement documented by field validation data in 1973. The most recent SUM application to salt mining has been in the Michigan Basin a: Goderich, Ontario. The anticipated abandonment of Domtar Chemicals Group/Sifto Salt Division's deep operation in bedded sale was prevented by a multi-year SCM implementation. The success of SCM in dry mining[lecc] to its application to solution mining of salt This adaptation of the method is now being implemented in bedded salt at Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta by Dow Chemical Co., and in St. Clair, MI by International Salt Co. Application of SCM to solution mining in a salt dome is proceeding at Napoleonville. LA by Dow Chemical. The same technology has also been applied to cavern design for the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), and the compressed air energy storage (CAES)

Jan 1, 1989