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By L. Moyd, P. Moyd

The first commercially available portable gamma ray-neutron beryllium detector, the Rerylometer, was developed by the same group that developed the first practical portable scintillation counter, the Scintillo-meter. This group includes Professor George Brownell, of the Geology Department of the University of Manitoba in winnipeg, and his associates, K. I. Roulston, R. w. Pringle, and R. L. Funt, of the Physics and Engineering Departments of the University of Manitoba. A prototype model was tested in the field by Dr. Brownell during the summer of 1958. Commercial production was undertaken shortly thereafter by Nuclear Enterprises Ltd., of Winnipeg, and a license for manufacture and distribution in the U.S. was granted to Isotopes Specialties Co., of Burbank, California, a division of Nuclear Corporation of America. Early in 1959, we were retained by the 'Mining Division of Minerva Oil Co. to Legin a search throughout North America for minable deposits of beryllium, and to train members of their permanent staff to continue the program. The project included literature sur-veys, interviews with members of various federal, state, and provincial agencies, scanning of our own collection of suites of specimens from various mineral occurrences, and the examination of deposits in the field. The value of a beryllium detector to this program was obvious and arrangements were made to procure one as soon as possible, which resulted in our obtaining and using the first instrument that was produced commercially in the U. S. In addition to the commercially available Berylometer, Mr. William Vaughan and his associates, of the U. S. Geological Survey Geophysics Division, in Denver, have developed and tested several experimental instruments based on the same principles. DETECTOR Principles The detection of beryllium is based on the fact that "hard" gamma rays (1.6 MEV and geater), such as those produced by Antimony convert ordinary beryllium (Be9) to Be8 , with the release of a neutron. The neutrons are counted by a scintillator designed to favor neutron responses while suppressing those of gamma rays. 'The instrument is completely selective for beryllium. No other element can interfere. Instrunlentation The Rerylometer itself, which is cylindrical, is about 8 inches in diameter, 13 inches high, and weighs about 11 pounds. (Figs. 1, 2). The principal components include: 1. A disc of wax to moderate (or "thermalize") neutrons. 2. A boron-enriched polyester-zinc-sulphide fluorescent screen. This material produces strong flashes when struck by thermalized neutrons but only weak flashes from gamma rays. 3. A photomultiplier tube. 4. An electronic circuit, complete with one srnall 71/2-volt dry battery. The photomultiplier tube and electronic circuit convert neutron flashes to electrical impulses, but gamma ray effects are almost

Jan 1, 1961

THE 125th meeting of the Institute was held in New York, Feb. 20-23, 1922, inclusive, and was the most successful annual meeting of the Institute ever held; there was a larger registration, there were more sessions of importance, and a greater number of sessions, than in any previous year. The total registration was 1331, comprising 351 New York members, 393 visiting members and 587 guests. At the annual business meeting of the Institute, held on Tuesday, Feb. 21, with President Ludlow presiding, there was a much larger attendance than usual. The report of the tellers was read and the following officers were declared elected: Arthur S. Dwight, Director and President-District 0 J. V. W. Reynders, Director and Vice-president-District 0 A. R. Ledoux, Director and Vice-president-District 0 Charles F. Rand. Director-District 0 George D. Barron, Director-District 0 William H. Bassett, Director-District 1 Thomas B. Stearns, Director-District 8 William Kelly, Director-District 5

Jan 3, 1922

By R. M. Waterstrat

X-ray diffraction and metallographic examination of binary Mn-rich alloys with Ti revealed the presence of intermediate phases in this system. A binary R phase has been identified and also a phase having an a-Mn type structure. The X-ray pattern of the phase TiMn3 is presented and a tentative phase diagram for the Mn-rich portion of this binary system has been constndcted. MANGANESE-rich alloys with titanium have been subjected to thermal analysis at temperatures down to 1100°C by Hellawell and Hume-Rothery.1 Their results indicate the existence of an intermediate phase TiMn3 in this binary system. This phase appears to coexist with the Laves phase TiMn2, and with terminal solid solutions based on the allotropes of manganese, at least down to 1100°C. The above investigators did not attempt to determine the crystal structure of this phase, however. Since, by analogy to the binary systems Mn-V and Mn-Cr3 one might expect to find a phase in this region of the diagram, it seemed desirable to obtain X-ray diffraction patterns of alloys in the concentration range in question, in order to ascertain whether the sigma phase or related structures occur. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Alloys were prepared by arc-melting electrolytic manganese and iodide titanium in a water-cooled copper crucible under a helium atmosphere. Excess manganese was added to each melt in order to allow for losses incurred during melting. The alloys were then wrapped in molybdenum foil and sealed in evacuated quartz tubes for annealing at various temperatures, as shown in Table I, followed by quenching in cold water. Although the inside of the tubes showed evidence for some loss of manganese from the specimen during annealing, there was no evidence of any reaction between the specimen and either the molybdenum foil or the quartz tube at these temperatures. It was later found that the manganese loss was considerably reduced by annealing these alloys in sealed quartz tubes containing one atmosphere of purified argon. As an added precaution the surface of each specimen was ground off before crushing the alloys to -270 mesh powder, using a hardened steel mortar and pestle. X-ray powder patterns were obtained using either FeKa or CrKa radiation in an asymmetrical focusing camera, which gave excellent dispersion of the closely spaced lines. Pictures were also obtained using a Debye camera of 5-cm radius which provided data in the angular region not covered by the focusing camera. The alloy specimens were polished and examined metallographically, using an etchant consisting of 60 pct glycerine, 20 pct nitric acid, and 20 pct hydrofluoric acid. The 10-g buttons were in each case broken in half and found to be well-melted and free of any gross segregation. One half of certain alloy buttons was submitted to chemical analysis in the "as-cast" condition. No appreciable change in composition seemed to occur during annealing . RESULTS The X-ray pattern of alloy Ti1.17Mn0.83 was found to agree well with that of the ternary R phase which was first found in the Mo-Cr-Co system,' and re-

Jan 1, 1962

By J. F. Wilson

An experimental investigation has been made of gas-driven slug displacements in a system of high gas saturation to evaluate the process for use in a California reservoir. Fluid compositions, temperature, pressure and core permeability duplicated reservoir conditions as closely as possible. The temperature was above the critical of the slug materials. The slug composition required for 100 per cent oil recovery in the linear flow systems was found to agree with that determined from equilibrium phase studies. A qualitative theory for the slug displacement of two-phase systems is proposed and found to be in general agreement with the observed flow behavior. The theory predicts that the length of the reservoir fluid-slug transition Zone will increase with increased initial gas saturation and decrease with increased oil swelling accompanying the composition change from reservoir oil to the critical composition. The precipitation of small amounts of an asphaltic phase during the formation of the transition zone had no adverse effects on the flow behavior of otherwise miscible systems. INTRODUCTION Despite the large number of recent publications relating to oil recovery by miscible displacement, little information is available concerning the behavior of crude oil-natural gas systems at conditions likely to be encountered in field application. The laboratory data reported here were obtained during an investigation of the possibility of using a gas-driven LPG slug in a partially depleted California reservoir. Seven gas-driven slug displacements employing slugs of different compositions and sizes were made in 26- to 27-ft long sandstone cores. The equilibrium phase behavior of the systems was also determined. The features of primary interest in this study are the following. 1. Data were obtained on the displacement of reservoir fluids at reservoir conditions. 2. A high gas saturation existed in the long cores at the start of the displacements. 3. The temperature of the studies was above the critical of the slug materials. 4. A comparison between the flow behavior and equilibrium phase behavior, as illustrated by a pseudo-ternary phase diagram, is afforded for a system of considerable complexity. THEORY Phase Behavior The use of the pseudo-ternary phase diagram to illustrate the phase behavior in miscible displacements has been discussed by Clark, Schultz and Shearin. Sie-vert, Dew and Conley and Arnold, Stone and Luffel' have presented both phase equilibrium and flow data for true ternary systems. For the true ternary, the application of the theory is straight-forward; for a reservoir system represented as a ternary, the theory undoubtedly gives a qualitatively correct picture. One purpose of this investigation was to see if the pseudo-ternary phase diagram could be used to predict with reasonable accuracy the conditions necessary for miscible displacements with actual reservoir systems. MiscIBLE Displacement of Two-Phase System A large number of papers "I3 have treated the miscible displacement of a single-phase fluid from both an experimental and a theoretical viewpoint. However, the normal field application of the process will be in a partially depleted reservoir. Often the state of the system will be such that the mobility of the gas phase is greater

WE the undersigned, being all persons of full age and citizens of the United States, and a majority residents of the State of New York, desiring to form a corporation pursuant to the provisions of the Membership Corporations Law for the purpose of incorporating, as provided in Section 6 of Article I. of said law, the existing unincorporated association known as American Institute of Mining Engineers, do hereby make, acknowledge and 6le this Certificate for that purpose, and do Certify as follows: I. That the American Institute of Mining Engineers is an unincorporated association organized and existing with the object of promoting the arts and sciences connected with the economic production of the useful minerals and metals and the welfare of those employed in these industries by means of meetings for social intercourse and the reading and discussion of professional papers, and to circulate by means of publications among its members and associates the information thus obtained. 11. That the persons duly appointed or designated to manage the affairs of said association are designated by the rules thereof Members of its Council; that the under- signed are all members of said Council as the same was constituted on the 29th day of December, 1904.

Jan 1, 1942

By D. W. Fuerstenau

In 1940 Schuhmann1 showed that the size distribution of a comminuted material can be expressed by the following empirical relationship: y = 100 (|f [i] where y is the cumulative percentage of material finer than size x, k is a size modulus, and a is a distribution modulus which is constant for a given material and machine. During the past few years, considerable emphasis has been given to the investigation of the extent of size reduction resulting from the expenditure of mechanical energy in crushing and grinding. Recently Schuhmann' presented a derivation of the energy-size reduction relationship by postulating that comminution in a device such as a ball mill can be considered to be the summation of many single comminution events, each of which yields a size distribution of particles following the Schuhmann size distribution equation. By grinding

Jan 1, 1961

By A. E. Chute

The shortage of sulfur is not only continuing but appears to be worsening, attended by steadily rising prices. At the same time emphasis on air-pollution abatement is also increasing. These two factors, a rising market and the growth of environmental attention, have encouraged producers to carefully review all possible sulfur sources. As a result, production of sulfur from hydrogen sulfide occurring in petroleum is receiving greater attention than ever before. Until about a decade ago, the practice of recovering sulfur from hydrogen sulfide separated from gases (either found naturally or generated in desulfurization of liquid petroleum) was wide1y recognized but contributed little to total free-world sulfur production. However, during the past ten years, the production of sulfur from this source has increased so rapidly that it now accounts for a substantial portion of total production. This trend shows no signs of slackening, and current forecasts predict that recovered sulfur may become the dominant source of supply within ten years, exceeding mined sulfur production. This paper is intended to list sulfur sources and relationships, and to discuss the potential of producing sulfur from petroleum. The processing involved, in addition to product storage and transportation will also be discussed along with important economic aspects of sulfur recovered from hydrogen sulfide. For many years, most of the world's elemental sulfur has been produced from salt domes, predominantly by the Frasch process. During the past decade, however, another production source has developed so quickly that it is expected to surpass the Frasch production sources within a short time. This new source lies in the petroleum gases and liquids from which dramatically increasing quantities of elemental sulfur are being recovered. In the phraseology of the trade, the sulfur so obtained is know as "recovered sulfur," a term which does not, as one might expect, include sulfur recovered from other sources such as smelter gases. The growth rate of recovered sulfur compared to that of Frasch sulfur, total elemental sulfur, and total Free World sulfur in all forms is shown in Fig. 1 Since 1963, sulfur consumption has exceeded production,with the natural result that the price of sulfurhas continually increased. The posted price reported for f.o.b. Port Sulphur, La., has risen from as low as $18 per ton in 1962 to $32.50 per ton in mid-1967. With freight and other charges, delivered prices have of course run much higher, amounting to $45 or $46 per ton on the east and west coasts. In some cases, spot sales for as much as $60 have been reported. Although it is playing an ever-increasing role in the sulfur market, recovered sulfur was originally a by-product of the removal of hydrogen sulfide from natural and petroleum refinery gases. Today, however, it is often the most valuable product of a multi-product processing facility. Since there are two major sources of recovered sulfur—production and refining processes —natural gas is included with liquid petroleum for purposes of this discussion. Sulfur from these sources is produced in the form of gaseous hydrogen sulfide which is removed from a gas stream and converted to elemental sulfur. Gases in which hydrogen sulfide occurs naturally are natural gas and the gas produced from a high=pres-sure crude=oil or condensate field.

Jan 1, 1969

By James C. M. Li, J. Weertman

James C. M. Li (United States Steel Covp.)—The author has discovered a single analytical relation between the minimum, or the steady-state, creep rate and the applied stress confirming a statement made earlier by orn" that such relation should exist and should reduce to the power law at low-stress levels and to the exponential law at high-stress levels. However, as pointed out by the author, all the available theories of creep are not adequate to explain such a single relation. Inspired by such a statement, I have made a suggestion concerning a possible explanation13 of the new relation. This is based on the concept that the rate-controlling step is the cooperative motion of a short dislocation segment. The nature of and the reason for the cooperation have been discussed13 as well as the reason why the motion of the dislocation could be controlled by the mobility of the short segments. A natural short segment has been proposed13 to be the node formed at the intersection of two dislocations. The reason why the node may contain only a few atoms has not been discussed and the application of the proposed model to all the metals and alloys reported in this paper has not been attempted. It seems appropriate to include these in this discussion. The model was partly inspired by the substructure recently observed in the electron microscope on creep specimens. One such example is shown in Fig. 48 in Darken's Campbell Memorial Lecture. The substructure is a collection of dislocation intersections and irregular networks. No pileups have ever been observed in such specimens. A closer look at the network indicates that one set of dislocations is more straight than the other set sug- gesting that the other set may be mobile in the plane of the net. Since, for the network to survive the creep deformation, some dislocation reaction has to take place at the intersection of the two sets of dislocations, the mobile dislocation, even if it can slip in the plane of the net, will have difficulty in moving at these intersections. To illustrate, an idealized network is shown in Fig. 9. The thin lines represent the set of dislocations which are mobile and can slip in the plane of the net except at the nodes which are formed at the intersection of the two sets of dislocations. The other set of dislocations, represented by the thick lines, may have a Burgers vector which is not parallel to the plane of the net, and therefore may be immobile. Because of this nonparallel Burgers vector, the Burgers vector of the node, which is avectorial sum of the Burgers vectors of the two sets of dislocations, will also be nonparallel to the plane of the net. Therefore, the node cannot slip in the plane of the net and the set of mobile dislocations will have to drag the node along as indicated in Fig. 9. Now the problem is how many atoms could be involved in the nodes. Exact calculation of the length of the node is a difficult task especially since the length should be a steady-state length and not an equilibrium length. An estimate of the equilibrium length can be made by balancing the line tension of all the dislocations. The results would be a small fraction of the length 1 between nodes as shown in Fig. 10. In some instances such a calculation shows that the node will not be formed. But, since the calculation is only approximate, it does not rule out the possibility of the formation of a short node. In other instances the equilibrium length of the node is an appreciable fraction of I. Such a node would

Jan 1, 1963

By R. F. Rolsten

VAN Arkel 1 prepared ductile tantalum by the thermal decompoiition of tantalum pentachloride on a resistively heated wire (2000° C) in an evacuated bulb maintained at 100°C. Burgers and Basart2'3 observed the formation of a mixture of tantalum carbide and free metal when a carbon deposition base was used. campbel14 suggested the thermal decomposition of the iodide if a lower decomposition tem- perature was desired. To date, the details for preparing high-purity iodide tantalum have not been disclosed. EXPERIMENTAL The tantalum to be purified was symmetrically placed around the clear quartz deposition surface centrally located within a 64 mm cylindrical Vycor bulb. The deposition vessel usually employed5 was modified6 by incorporating a reentrant fin,mer in place of the customary metal filament in the head

Jan 1, 1960

By Edward Capillon

THE problem of scrap is probably of greater importance inn the production of gold, silver and other precious metal alloys than is the case for base metals and alloys. Remelting of gold and silver scrap in the shop is always a costly process because it involves losses by oxidation of the base metals in the alloy with a consequent increase in the percentage of precious metal. This is most marked in the case of alloys containing the low-boiling and easily oxidized metals zinc and cadmium. Since it is. not generally feasible to assay every shop remelt it follows that the possibilities of lost values are large. So-called rolled gold and silver plate is made by soldering or welding the precious metal alloys onto base, metal. Such plate when defective must be sent to the refinery to recover the gold and silver values, thereby involving additional expense in the form of refining charges. It is obvious therefore that gold and silver alloy scrap is an important item in manufacturing cost and must be reduced to a minimum. The amount of scrap resulting from poor metal will depend on a number of factors in the manufacturing operations, not least among which is the melting and casting practice. The notes which follow are a summary of experiments performed at various times to determine what variables in melting and casting are influential in the production of sound alloys.

Jan 1, 1930

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Jan 1, 1938

By J. H. Brophy, M. H. Kamdar, J. Wulff

A constitutional diagram for the Ta-W-Re alloy system is presented. Rhenium dissolves in the complete range of solid solutions between tungsten and tantalum up to 48 wt pct in tantalum 'to about 30 wt pct in tungsten. Intermediate x and u phases only are found. X-ray diffraction and fluorescence, metallography and melting-point measurements were employed. THE constitution diagram of ternary alloys of tungsten, tantalum, and rhenium for temperatures above 1000°C is reported in this paper. Alloys in this system rich in tantalum and tungsten are of interest for high-temperature applications, and those rich in rhenium for electronic applications. No ternary phase diagram appears to be available in the literature. The three-component binary diagrams have been previously established1-3 and the present ternary data are consistent with these. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Commercially pure tantalum (99.7 pct), rhenium (99.99 pet), and tungsten (99.9 or 99.95 pct) powders were purchased from Fansteel Metallurgical Corp., Chase Brass and Copper Co., and Fansteel or Westinghouse Electric Corp., respectively. These powders were pressed without binder and arc-melted under helium. The preparatory and analytical techniques employed were identical to those used for the Ta-Re system investigation carried out in this laboratory.324 These included X-ray diffraction and metallographic phase identification, X-ray fluorescent and wet chemical analyses, solidus determinations and heat treatments in a resistance-heated tantalum-filament vacuum furnace. For microstructural examinations standard mechanical polishing techniques were used through diamond laps. Polished speciments of all compositions were etched by swabbing with 4 parts HI?, 4 parts HNO3, and 1 part H20. Since the microstruc-tures of alloys containing one or two phases closely resembled their counterparts in the respective binary systems, typical examples are omitted in this presentation. In all the alloys examined, it was possible to observe the number of phases present. Particularly when there were small amounts of one phase involved, it was possible to identify it only by a combined conclusion based on X-ray diffraction, position of an alloy in a composition series, and the phase rule. A total of 100 different alloy compositions was arc-melted and studied in the as-cast condition metallographically and by X-ray diffraction. Specimens of each of these compositions were heat-treated at 2680, 2530, and 2020°C for 1, 2, and 4 hr, respectively. Those which were treated at 2020 were given a preliminary homogenization treatment at 2500°C for 1 hr. Specimens of 25 alloys were heat-treated at 1200o C for 168 hr. Solidus temperature measurements were made by the detection of incipient melting in eighteen alloy compositions. The metallographic and X-ray diffraction results are summarized in Table I. Graphically, this information appears in the isothermal plots of Figs. 2 and 3. Within the accuracy of the experimental methods, two such plots are sufficient to locate these data, since the results for 1200°C were similar to 2020 and those at 2530 resembled 2680

Jan 1, 1962

By G. F. Butterworth

The metallographic structures most frequently encountered in rifle barrels, and which are illustrated by the accompanying photomicrographs, fall naturally into two groups, distinguished by the method used to, produce in the stock a physical condition having the requisite properties. The fist group consists of "rolled" barrels; that is, barrels subjected to hot working by rolling in or near the critical range. In the second group, the stock, which is smaller in diameter than the first, is upset to form the butt end and is then heat treated by giving it a quench and a draw. These barrels will be referred to as " heat-treated " barrels. The structure of the rolled barrels resembles closely that of the same steel after annealing. There is the same network of excess ferrite outlining the grain boundaries, but the grains themselves are composed of sorbite rather than pearlite. The grain size is closely related to the rolling temperature. The critical-point curves of this grade of steel, which is approximately 0.50 to 0.60 per cent. of carbon and 1.00 to 1.30 per cent, of manganese, show a single very pronounced point between 1300" and 1350" F. (704" and 732" C.). Barrels rolled within this temperature range give an exceedingly fine grain, shown in Fig. 1. In fact, the grains may be so fine that, at a low magnification, they may be confused with the heat-treated structure shown in Fig. 6. A magnification of 500 diameters, however, will always resolve a rolled barrel into the characteristic structure shown in Fig. 2. As the temperature is increased, the grains are found to be larger. If, on the other hand, the rolling temperature is below the critical range, the structure previous to rolling will not be obliterated, the only effect of rolling being to elongate the coarse sorbite grains in the direction of rolling, Fig. 3. This distortion is greatest at the muzzle. Heat-treated barrels are quenched in oil from above the critical range, which should give a martensitic structure, Fig. 4, but the presence of some troostite in the martensite is frequently noted when the quench has not been sufficiently drastic, Fig. 5. The structure brought about by the subsequent draw is not so striking, though quite as typical. It is sorbitic or sorbito-pearlitic, and under a low magnification appears almost homogeneous, as in the case of fine grains of pepper and salt well mixed together, Fig. 6. This structure is substantially the same for all

Jan 1, 1920

By Daniel T. Brian, O&apos

Exploration targets and results in the mining industry are commonly summarized in terms of tonnage and grade. Business appraisals require, as additional information, the expected profit or loss implied by the physical summay. The early incorporation of knowledge gained through financial analysis computations can provide a means for economically resolving many common exploration and development problems. Examples of such applications from the activities of exploration planning, reconnaissance, land acquisition, and development planning are presented. While prospecting for mineral deposits, geologists are frequently asked what they hope to find or have found. The response is usually descriptive, such as "50 million tons of 1% copper," and the economic implications are deferred until a capital investment decision is required. At that time, a financial analysis integrating the four analysis components is completed. These components are: 1) Tonnage and Average grade above cutoff grade 2) Capital and operating costs 3) Product value 4) Appropriate profit or loss accounting Close examination of these components reveals that there is no intrinsic reason for avoiding financial analyses at earlier stages in exploration, as long as the uncertainty of the estimate is realized. Tonnage and average grades are commonly estimated at early stages in exploration. For this component, the appropriate cutoff is the major uncertainty. Capital and operating costs are difficult to estimate before detailed quantitative information is available, but estimates useful for the types of applications pertinent to earlier exploration stages are possible. Product value estimates may or may not be difficult, depending on the pricing structure of the particular commodity. A simplified accounting procedure usually may be adopted without introducing any significant loss of validity. This paper describe some of the financial analysis applications which are pertinent during mineral exploration and deposit development. These applications lend additional insight during exploration planning, land acquisition, physical exploration, and development. The examples are oriented toward a hypothetical management investment policy which is based on a single criterion, a minimum 15% discounted cash flow rate of return. In reality, managements use multiple criteria. This simplification is convenient for purposes of presentation and does not invalidate the examples. Computers are useful, but not a requirement, for the applications described. The use of computers provides the results on a more timely basis at costs lower than equivalent manual computations. UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES AND ANALYSIS METHODS Data estimates are subject to uncertainty. The analyst may choose to assess this uncertainty by using one of two principles. Each principle has some advantages. The principle most commonly employed is "assumed certainty." Each financial analysis is based on one set of selected data, which may represent the average estimates, minimum expected conditions, etc. The critical data is identified by making successive calculations, varying the values used. Such studies, called sensitivity analyses, isolate the economic effect of various uncertainties, and guide the allocation of future efforts toward improving the overall accuracy of the analysis. A second principle, "assumed risk," examines the interactive effect of the current uncertainties by qualitatively assigning probability distributions to each data element. These probability distributions indicate the currently appraised chance that a given numerical value will prove to be true. The corresponding procedure, risk analysis, consists of processing many individual financial analyses, each analysis being based on randomly selected numerical values from the probabilistic distributions. The result is a numerical presentation of the uncertainty, but care must be exercised in the interpretation of results. The advantage of this procedure is the direct measurement of economic uncertainty caused by the interaction of uncertain estimates. Kennecott Copper Corp. has developed computer systems for accomplishing sensitivity and risk analyses.

Jan 1, 1970

CONTENTS PAGE ANDERSON, ARVID E., and CAMERON, FRANK K.-Recovery of Copper by Leaching, Ohio Copper Co. of Utah. Discussed by Thomas B. Brighton, H. C. Goodrich, Arvid E. Anderson, Thos. P. Billings, Frank K. Cameron 2 BEESON, J. J.-Mining Districts and Their Relation to Structural Geology. Discussed by Charles Keyes, Chas. A. Porter 4 DOBBEL, CHAS. A.-Deep-hole Prospecting at the Chief Consolidated Mines. Discussed by G. W. Crane 10 CRANE, G. W.-Notes on the Geology of East Tintic. Discussed by G. W. Crane, H. E. Havernor, N. O. Lawton 11 SACKETT, B. L., BARDWELL, CARLOS, JACOBSON, SIMON, and JENSEN, N. H. Lead Smelting in Utah. Discussed by D. W. Jessup, B. L. Sackett, E. H. Laws 13 BARDWELL, E. S., and MILLER, Roy H.-Pulverized Coal as Fuel for Copper Refining Furnaces. Discussed by L. D. Anderson, E. S. Bardwell, C. P. Crawford 15 WIGTON, G. H.-The Chief Consolidated Volatilization Process and Mill. Discussed by Thomas Varley, S. G. Olmstead, V. O. Lawton, O. C. Ralston.... 16 JESSUP, D. W.-Evolution in the Preparation of Ores for Lead Blast Furnaces. Discussed by W. Spencer Reid, D. W. Jessup, Carlos Bardwell 19 ALLEN, H. P., and MADGE, WM. C.-Chloridizing Mill of the Standard Reduction Co. Discussed by Thomas Varley, H. R. Hanley, H. P. Allen, George H. Dern 20 TUCKER, E. L., and HEAD, R. E.-Effect of Cyanogen Compounds on Floatability of Pure Sulfide Minerals. Discussed by Blarney Stevens 24 Mix, B. E., and BARKER, L. M.-Method of Unloading Ores and Coarse-crushing Practice at Magna Plant of Utah Copper Co. Discussed by W. C. Madge,B. E. Mix 25 KEIGLEY, C. T.-The New Byproduct Coke Plant of the Columbia Steel Corporation. Discussed by W. M. Grant, C. T. Keigley, A. C. Feilder 25 JACKSON, P. W.-Blast Furnace Plant of the Columbia Steel Corporation. Discussed by W. R. Phibbs, H. M. Henton 26 OLDRIGHT, G. L., KEYES, H. E., and WARTMAN, F. S.-Production of Ferric Sulfate and Sulfuric Acid from Roaster Gas. Discussed by G. D. Van Arsdale William E. Greenawalt, G. L. Oldright 27 MAZANY, M. S.-Braden Copper Company Caletones Smelter. Discussed by A. B. Young, G. L. Oldright 36 HARRINGTON, D.-Safety Methods in Utah Coal Mines. Discussed by Edward K. Judd, Otto Herres, Benedict Shubart, A. C. Watts, D. Harrington 36

Jan 12, 1925

By T. R. A. Davey

The fundamental principles by which bismuth may be removed from lead by pyrometallurgical processes are enumerated. Qualitative discussion of the phase diagrams concerned is followed by presentation of quantitative diagrams. Brief mention is made of the practical aspects. Data presented show how chemical lead (<0.005 pct Bi) may be produced by the Jollivet, Dittmer, and Kroll-Betterton processes. BISMUTH is an element whose properties are very similar to those of lead, and its minerals are associated to a greater or lesser extent with nearly all the major lead ore deposits of the world. In consequence, the lead produced contains bismuth unless a special debismuthizing process is practiced. There does not appear to be any published comprehensive review of the effect of bismuth as an impurity on the properties of lead, and there is some uncertainty as to the beneficial or detrimental effects of small amounts of bismuth in lead used for particular applications. Standard specifications of most countries stipulate a maximum bismuth content of 0.005 pct for chemical lead. With one exception, this specification is met only by lead producers whose ores are relatively bismuth-free, or whose refineries are electrolytic. In lead for certain applications a higher bismuth content is preferred by some fabricators.&apos; In contrast to the refining for silver, copper, and antimony, the refining for bismuth does not usually result in a large overalil economic gain from the sale of byproduct. Thus, debismuthizing is customarily practiced only if market conditions demand a lead with a bismuth content lower than that produced by classical refining; i.e., softening, desilverizing, and zinc refining. Until this century, debismuthizing was carried out only a:; an incidental result of desilverizing, as later described. This century has seen the development of the Betts electrolytic process—the only successful one of many electrolytic processes proposed and patented —and a number of precipitation processes based on the pioneering work of Kroll,&apos; although only one of these, the Kroll-Better ton process,&apos; is in wide commercial use today. It is proposed in this paper to deal only with the pyrometallurgical processes, excluding those based on aqueous electrolysis. Historical Background Prior to 1833 silver (and incidentally bismuth) could not be removed from lead. To recover silver from rich bullion, the only course available to lead refineries was to cupel the bullion, forming a slag of litharge. The first slag tappings or skimmings, on reduction, yielded soft lead of very low silver and bismuth contents. Intermediate skimmings yielded a lead of somewhat higher silver and bismuth contents, which could if desired be recupelled. The last skimmings yielded a litharge very high in bismuth, which could by successive oxidation and reduction cycles be separated into high purity bismuth, and lead returns. This oxidation reduction process, with modern operating techniques, can still be used today to produce a portion of a lead refinery&apos;s output of very low bismuth content, as discussed later. In 1833 Pattinsone discovered that lead bullion could be purified of silver and bismuth by fractional crystallization, the primary lead crystals formed by partial freezing being purer than the melt. Repeated processing in pans produced a lead containing as little as 0.02 pct Bi. The simple explanation of this

Jan 1, 1957

By K. P. Fournier

This report describes work on the problem of predicting oil recovery from a reservoir into which water is injected at a temperature higher than the reservoir temperature, taking into account effects of vis cosity-ratio reduction, heat loss and thermal expansion. It includes the derivation of the equations involved, the finite difference equations used to solve the partial differential equation which models the system, and the results obtained using the IBM 1620 and 7090-1401 computers. Figures and tables show present results of this study of recovery as a function of reservoir thickness and injection rate. For a possible reservoir hot water flood in which 1,000 BWPD at 250F are injected, an additional 5 per cent recovery of oil in place in a swept 1,000-ft-radius reservoir is predicted after injection of one pore volume of water. INTRODUCTION The problem of predicting oil recovery from the injection of hot water has been discussed by several researchers. l-6,19 In no case has the problem of predicting heat losses been rigorously incorporated into the recovery and displacement calculation problem. Willman et al. describe an approximate method of such treatment. 1 The calculation of heat losses in a reservoir and the corresponding temperature distribution while injecting a hot fluid has been attempted by several authors.7&apos;8 In this report a method is presented to numerically predict the oil displacement by hot water in a radial system, taking into account the heat losses to adjacent strata, changes in viscosity ratio with temperature and the thermal-expansion effect for both oil and water. DERIVATION OF BASIC EQUATIONS We start with the familiar Buckley-Leverettg equation for a radial system:* This is sometimes referred to as the Lagrangian form of the displacement equation. If the injection water is at some temperature Ti which is above reservoir temperature TR, then lw, the flowing fraction which is water, is a function of both water saturation and fluid temperature at any given time and position in the reservoir. The temperature dependence of lw results from the temperature dependence of the viscosity ratio µo/µm of which lw is a function. Thus:

Jan 1, 1966

By S. A. Falconer

The benefication of non-sulfide or non-metallic minerals by froth flotation has been practiced commercially for at least 30 years. In the pioneer stages of development of this flotation art, most of the promoters investigated were fatty acids or soaps that had been found to float sulfide minerals. When commercial application of froth flotation started to assume importance in the late 1920&apos; s and 1930&apos;s, a great deal of fundamental research work was done in the laboratory (11-14, 19, 22, 23, 26, 29, 32). Among other subjects, this work included studies of the relative effectiveness of the different fatty acids and their salts on the flotability of various non-sulfide and non-metallic minerals. The successful present-day use of fatty acid and petroleum sulfonate type promoters results from better understanding of the principles of non-sulfide flotation plus the developnent of effective selectivity modifying agents. Many investigators have contributed to a greater appreciation of the numerous interrelated factors involved in fatty acid and soap flotation of non-sulfide minerals. Of these, mention should be made of recent fundamental studies by Tagart and Arbiter (31); Wolstenholme and Schulman (35); Schulman and Smith (28); Wark and his co-workers(3,4) Du FIietz(l5); and J. Leja(24). According to J. Rogers, K. L. Sutherland and E. E. and I. W. Wark(27), "the basic requirements for a &apos;collector&apos; in flotation are that it shall form a film over the surface of the mineral to be floated and that this film should be oriented so that hydrocarbon (non-polar) groups form the effective surface." When modified in that way, the mineral surface possesses some degree of air avidity. All investigators would agree with Taggart, Taylor and Ince (33)that such a film can be produced only if the collector compound contains an active (polar) group to be attracted to the mineral surface, as well as the non-polar group. The commonly used anionic-type promoters for non-sulfide, non-metallic and metallic oxide ores include: 1. Fatty acids, and their soaps and emulsions. 2. Fatty acids residues — "pitches" and "foots." 3. Sulfonated and sulfated fatty acids and so-called "petroleum sulfonates." 4. Paraffin chain salts — sulfonated and sulfated higher alcohols. 5. Cyclic organic acids or salts, such as naph-thenic acid and naphthenates. Certain fatty acids are more effective than others as promoters for particular minerals under certain specified conditions. Some of the more costly fatty acids or collectors of the paraffin chain salt type may give improved selectivity in some instances and are being used commercially in a limited number of operations. Local availability may dictate the choice of the fatty acid used — for example, the use of palmoil fatty acid for flotation of copper carbonate ores in the Belgian Congo. Coconut oil fatty acids have also found limited use.

Jan 1, 1961

By R. E. Morgan, D. L. Douglass

The determination of phase relationships and solid-solubility limits can be performed by quantitative metallography in addition to the usual X-ray and metallographic techniques. For example, Beck and smith1 redetermined the ß/ß + ?, ß + ?/?, a/a + ß and a + ß/ß boundaries in the Cu-Zn system by measuring the volume fraction of second phase of several alloys and extrapolating the volume fraction-composition curves to 0 and 100 pct. A modification of this technique is suggested for certain alloy systems, in which it is not necessary to use several alloy compositions but merely one. A single two-phase alloy may be used to determine terminal solubilities in the following manner. The method consists of equilibrating samples of the alloy in a two-phase region adjacent to the desired solid solution, at three or more temperatures, quenching, measuring the volume fraction of second phase present, and applying an analytical treatment to calculate the unknown solid solution. However, two restrictions are inherent in this technique. They are: 1) only certain types of alloy systems are amenable to it, and 2) the general features of the system must be known. The first drawback to the new technique, i.e., that only certain types of systems may be studied, necessitates that the composition at one end of the tieline must either be constant with temperature or well established as a function of temperature. Either a pure metal or some intermetallic compounds fulfill the former. If it is assumed that the volume per gram-atom of a dilute solution is unchanged by the addition of element B to element A, the composition of the solid solution in equilibrium with the second phase may be determined by a material balance and is given by where X, = volume fraction of B in a solid solution Xc = volume fraction of B in compound c X = volume fraction of B in alloy f = volume fraction of second phase The composition by weight may then be determined by the use of tables in the Metals Handbook2 when the density ratio of the solid solution constituents is known. A possible alternative treatment involving the use of the lever rule is less precise than the above tech- nique. This may be used when the density of the solid solution is either known or may be calculated from X-ray data for several compositions. The following analysis is then made. The ratio of compound to solid solution (by weight) may be expressed as follows: x0 - x wc = xr-x = x0 - x r2i Xc -X where Wc = weight of compound w = weight of solid solution x, - alloy composition, weight percent x = unknown composition Xe = compound composition but where V, = volume of compound VA = volume of solid solution pc = density of compound p, = density of solid solution fc = volume fraction of compound fB = volume fraction of solid solution and fs = l -fc then If pc and xc are known, and f, is measured, then pB is the only unknown on the right side of Eq. [4]. The known densities of the solid solution can be plotted for various compositions and can then be expressed mathematically as a function of composition. The use of an expression of pB = f(x)reduces the equation to one unknown—the desired solubility. In the event that the densities are unknown, they may be calculated for various compositions from Vegard&apos;s law. The calculated values are then plotted and expressed analytically. The most accurate results are obtained for Eq. [4] when fc<< 1, i.c., when (x, -x,) - 0, &/l-f, - m; but as fc/l -fc - 0, (xl-x,)- (x, - x), and x - x,,. However, the accuracy with which fc can be measured decreases as f, decreases.3 Alloys for investigation must be selected by a compromise, which is based upon an error analysis of Eq. [4] and knowledge of the accuracy of volume fraction measurements. An examination of phase diagrams in the literature showed many which were amenable to the technique described here. The zirconium-copper system was selected in order to determine the solubility of copper in beta zirconium. Pieces of an alloy which was arc-melted three times were wrapped in tantalum foil and sealed under an argon atmosphere in Vycor tubes. The sealed samples were equilibrated at temperatures from 850" to 960°C for 3 weeks and quenched to room temperature by smashing the capsule in water. Several planes of polish were examined, and

Jan 1, 1960

By John T. Norton

N order to attempt to arrive at a better under-Jl standing of the whole basic problem of sintering, these remarks will serve as an introduction for discussion that is included and will, perhaps, help to isolate specific questions which need to be answered or to suggest some definite avenues of investigation which should be followed. To bring some sort of logical order into the presentation, I will consider the various types of interaction between the metal to be sintered and the atmosphere which surrounds it, depending upon whether the phenomena are essentially chemical or physical in nature. For example, when the only necessary criterion for the satisfactory sintering of a certain powder is the removal of an oxide skin, then the problem of choosing a suitable atmosphere is primarily chemical; however, if a special surface condition as a consequence of the oxide skin removal is necessary for particularly effective sintering, then the problem becomes a physical one. Of course, the two aspects overlap considerably, but it may be possible to make a distinction in principle if not in practice. The chemical characteristics of the phenomena will be emphasized, since these are the better known. Metal-gas reactions involved in sintering are controlled primarily by the thermodynamics of the processes involved. In which direction will a reaction go and how far before it stops? The answer is to be found in the magnitude of the free energy change associated with the reaction. If a constituent is to be removed from the specimen as completely as possible or if a constituent is to be formed in the specimen as completely as possible, then one chooses conditions which are far from equilibrium so that the reaction is driven toward completion. On the other hand, if the composition is to be maintained at a desired value, then conditions are adjusted as closely as possible to the equilibrium point. This aspect of the problem is susceptible to quite precise analysis, provided, of course, that the significant reactions can be recognized and the required thermodynamic data are available. Conversely, if one asks how fast the reaction goes or how far it proceeds in a given time, the answer is frequently much more difficult to answer in quantitative terms. Yet the rate-con trolling factors of the reactions may be of primary importance in the success of a particular operation, especially where competing processes are at work. Both equilibrium and rate factors must be understood if a clear picture is to be obtained. For instance, in a process for carburizing titanium dioxide, is the difficulty of obtaining a stoichiometric Tic due to a true limitation of the equilibrium or simply to a very slow rate of reaction? An example of this appears in the work of Kalish and Mazza.&apos; They showed that the oxygen content of sintered iron compacts was lower when sintered in pure hydrogen than in the case where the hydrogen was diluted with either argon or nitrogen. The equilibrium oxygen content of the iron would be the same in the two cases, since it is determined by the ratio of the partial pressures of water vapor and hydrogen and this pressure ratio is unchanged by dilution. The rate of oxygen removal, however, under the conditions of a constantly replaced furnace atmosphere, depends upon diffusion and thus upon the concentration of hydrogen in the furnace atmosphere. Possibly the clearest way to illustrate the interplay of these two factors is to consider in more detail some of the typical metal-gas reactions. Adsorbed Gases It is common experience that fine metal powders with their very large surface areas often contain large quantities of gas. This gas, which results from exposure to air or perhaps from some step in the

Jan 1, 1957