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By Edwards A. B

Renison Bell is on the Emu Bay Railway, midway between Zeehan and Rosebery on the west coast of Tasmania. The tin deposits in this area have been described by G. A. WaIler (1902), L. K. Ward (1909), H. Hermani (1914), and Hartwell Conder (1918), for the Tasmanian Geological Survey. The ore-bodies occur in the slates, grits, altered lava flows and tufts of the Dundas Series, and consist of fine-grained cassiterite disseminated through massive sulphides (chiefly pyrrhotite or pyrite), or through bodies of quartz and sulphides. Some of these bodies show a N.W.-S.E. strike, parallel to the strike of the tin belt, but others strike N.E.-S;W. or E.-W.The ore-bodies are of two types: (1) steeply dipping fissure veins,' spoken of locally as "feeders," and (2) flatter-lying bodies more or less conformable with the bedding planes of the slates (bedded veins), spoken of locally as "floors."The feeders range from 5-12 ft. in width, with occasional bulges as great as 4q ft. Their lengths vary from 100 ft. to several hundred yards, and they are known to continue to Clmsiderable depths. 'They dip steeply, generally at angles of 45° to 60° to the east or south.The floors, where they occur, 'are directly connected with the feeders, and are sheet-iike bodies of sulphide ore. The composite ore-bodies thus have the shape of an inverted L, or a T, according to whether 'the floor extends out from one side or both sides of the feeder. Most of the floors extend from the hanging-wall side of the feeder. Where erosion has removed the connection, they appear as separate bodies.The feeders as a rule carry more quartz and arsenopyrite than the floors, and are richer in tin. In addition, the cassiterite tends to be coarser grained in the feeders than in the floors. The floors, on the other hand, carry a greater proportion of -sulphides, chiefly pyrrhotite, and the grade of ore and grain size of the cas,siterite tend to decrease as the floor is followed down the dip away from the feeder, so that the outer and lower extremities of the floors may be too low-grade to work economically. The average grade of the ore worked at present is 0·9,0/0 tin. The slates forming the roofs of the floors are commonly much contorted and silicified,' so that they form hard rocks in which the contortion and shattering of the original slates are well preserved. Joints extending upwards, more or less at right angles to the roof of the floor, are occasionally filled with finely crystalline quartz, similar to that in the orebodies, and are often rich in tin, so much so that the slate as a whole may average 0·4% tin.Some carbonate gangue is present in all of the ore-bodies, commonly on the footwall side, and, in places it becomes an important constituent...

Jan 1, 1943

Water Balancing in Mineral Processing - Issues and Opportunities

Sep 13, 2010

The use of comparative sampling methods during the evaluation of the tin-copper deposits at Cleveland mine yielded closely checking average results from groove, channel, AXT split diamond drill core, and bulk sampling for both tin and copper content of the ore.The weighted mean tin and copper grades and values for the groove, channel, and split core samples showed small percentage differences from bulk sample results, and the F-ratio test for single population origin of the four types of samples was accepted at the 99· 5 per cent level of confidence.These results indicate that grade estimates based on the assays from AXT split diamond drill core and/or groove samples would be reliable within practical limits.

Jan 1, 1968

By C E. J de Ronde, I C. Wright

Oceanic subduction-related volcanic frontal arcs extend over 20 000 km within the western Pacific basin and over 21 500 km worldwide, yet they remain largely unexplored with respect to active seafloor mineralization. Systematic exploration of 26 major submarine volcanoes along ~840 km of the Kermadec arc northeast of New Zealand has documented ten (39 per cent) as being hydrothermally active. This frequency of venting is comparable to that on slow-to-moderate rate spreading mid-ocean ridges, which comprise ~80 per cent of the 60 000 km-long global system of spreading centers. The chemistry of fluids discharged from the Kermadec arc volcanoes is moderated by magmatic components in both the gaseous (CO2 + SO2-H2S) and liquid (Fe) phases at very high concentration.The high frequency of venting coupled with chemically rich discharge discovered during this first systematic survey of any arc system forecasts submarine arcs as being important sources of chemicals to the oceans and as potentially lucrative exploration sites for seafloor mineralization. The exploration protocols developed during these surveys include bathymetric mapping of mostly unknown volcanic edifices, followed by detailed water column profiling and sampling to detect and characterize volcanic fluid emission signatures. These procedures are being refined as the survey progresses, both for efficiency and as direct seafloor observations become available for predictive application of water column plume information to guide seafloor mineral exploration.

Jan 1, 2002

By K Lownie, R Sani, A Sianturi

Part of the PT Freeport Indonesia (PTFI) mine production is in the process of transitioning from the deep ore zone (DOZ) mine to the deep mill level zone (DMLZ) mine. The DMLZ mine is the next lift in the caving series and lies 500 m below the current DOZ footprint.In order to reduce the need for a very expensive additional ventilation system for the DMLZ mine, it was decided to reconfigure some infrastructure and upgrade the performance of the three existing DOZ mixed flow ventilation fans in situ, reducing the new fans required to two. This was far less costly than providing complete new installations.These fans are installed in individual underground chambers in DOZ mine exhaust drifts and connected to the DMLZ mine exhaust drifts system in 7 m × 7 m airways size, through sets of 6 m diameter by 500 m high raises.The upgrade process involved replacement of motors, fan shafts and bearings. The existing 1600 kW DOZ mixed flow fans are 3500 mm diameter and operate at a speed of 595 rev/min and were originally designed to deliver 390 m3/s at 3.3 kPa. Efficiency optimisation may be required at a later date.The upgraded DMLZ fans are required to deliver 425 m3/s at 3.7 kPa and it was necessary to increase in motor size and speed to 2200 kW at 710 rev/min. This paper will discuss the fan upgrade project and in particular the integration of an unusual ventilation system, which is based on the semi parallel operation of multiple large fans.CITATION:Sani, R, Sianturi, A and Lownie, K, 2017. Operation of deep mill level zone mixed flow fans after the first fan upgrade – a parallel fans case study, in Proceedings Australian Mine Vent Conference 2017, pp 285–292 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 28, 2017

Terramin Australia LimitedÆs Angas Lead and Zinc Mine operates in the unique and picturesque environment of Adelaide Hills, 60 km South East of the Adelaide city centre itself. The mine was granted approval for construction by the South Australian Government in April 2007 and the Process Plant was constructed and commissioned in July 2008. This paper outlines the background to the plant design and the approval process given the close proximity to the local town of Strathalbyn, with a major focus on the commissioning learnings from the Concentrator startup for future reference and a review of the operational performance of the Concentrator throughout the first year of successful production versus design and expectations.

Jan 1, 2009

The author summarizes and extends the relevant results of papers previously published by various authors and presents these results in chart form. The charts are used to demonstrate the theory on a hypothetical mine.INTRODUCTIONRecently a series of articles have dealt with leakage in a mine ventilation system and the problem of its reduction.Theories were developed by Peascod and Keane (1955) for the combined effect of flow in the airways and leakage through the porous barrier between the intake and return of an ideal mine. Later Keane and Peascoa. (1956) extended these ideas to the use of an underground booster fan in increasing the face ventilation and showed how to determine the water gauge and location of the most efficient underground fan.These articles were based on the assumption that Atkin:son's formula:P = R Q2 (1)gave the relation between the pressure drop P lb'/sq. ft., the quantity, Q kilocusecs, flowing in the mine airways and the total resistance, R Atkinsons, to air flow offered by the mine roadway. An Atkinson is defined as a resistance such that 1 kilocusec of air flows due to a pressure drop of 1Ib.jsq. ft. However for conditions prevailing in most mines a more :appropriate relation is that postulated by Reynolds and others (Lamb, 1953) :P=R Qn (2)where n has some value slightly less than 2. It should be noted that Atkinsons may not be used as units when n is not equal to 2.

Jan 1, 1958

The principal dirnensions of the chimney were fixed as follows: Height from formation to coping, 328 ft. 8 in.; inside diameter concrete shell, 13 ft. Gin.; inside diameter of the 4~-in. brick lining. 11 ft. (j in. ; shell thickness above flue inlet at a point 39 ft. above formation, 1 ft. 8in.; shell thickness at coping, 6 in. That is, the inside of chimney is cylindrical, wldst the outside is gradually stepped inwards with of 1 in. and less until the shell is 6 in. thick only at the top. With these dimensions in mind, it will be seen that some close thought was necessary to ensure a satisfactory of fonn which could be kept rigid and plumb to a height and at the same time provide safe working conditions for the labourers employed.FOUNDATIONSThe spread base of the chimney is 45 ft. in diameter, and foundations were carried down to a depth of 8 ft. 6 in. below natural surface into good hard clay which was known to be the best foundation obtainable in the vicinity being capable of withstanding, when dry, a load of 3 tons to 4 tons per square foot, whereas dead load is 1A tons per square foot and the maximum load expeeted under the most severe wind condition is 2 tons per square foot to ensure the foundation being kept dry and unaffected by ground water, the site was surrounded by a ring drain at a distance of six feet from edge of concrete foundation and at a minimum depth of one foot below bottom of concrete. Open-jointed pipes were laid in the bottom ofthe drain and graded to a pipe drain with outfall clear of the site.

Jan 1, 1924

Adsorption of Starch on Kaolinite Surfaces

Sep 13, 2010

Recovery Process of Carbon Dioxide with Metal Oxides and Metal Hydroxides

Sep 13, 2010

By B Belle

In a predrained gassy coalmine, ventilation control plays a secondary role to the longwall (LW) goaf drainage systems to safely manage panel return gas levels. Typically, the LW specific gas emission (SGE) estimation models provide anticipated goaf gas emissions and arriving at required gas drainage capacity for various coal production scenarios. A study comparing the various LW goaf gas hole spacing patterns with weekly production rates of up to 270 kt/w of an operating mine with high SGE rates (~20 m3/t) was carried out. The goaf capture efficiency of LW panels ranged from 64 per cent to 85 per cent. For the first time, gas content of upper seam data post LW retreat were used to verify the current SGE prediction models. This study has shown that an average of 50 m goaf spacing is optimal for management of high production retreat gassy LW panels in presence of multiple upper and lower seams with gas emission zone influence reaching up to 200 m above workings. Due to the horizontal stress direction related geotechnical issues, goaf hole failures just behind the LW face is a recurring challenge resulting in significant and immediate increase in LW panel return gas levels. This paper highlights the shortcomings of current SGE prediction models for goaf gas estimation, and evolution of 50 m goaf hole spacing embedded in design process in managing the LW tailgate gas levels.CITATION:Belle, B, 2017. Optimal goaf hole spacing in high production gassy Australian longwall mines – operational experiences, in Proceedings Australian Mine Vent Conference 2017, pp 15–26 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 28, 2017

By B Belle

Dust sampling is pivotal in estimating the ‘dose’ of dust exposure and in deriving dose-response curves in epidemiological studies. Over the last half century, gravimetric sampling has been the fundamental means for dust exposure monitoring using recognised respirable size-selective standards. In Australia, a gravimetric sampling technique has been followed since 1983 using the Higgins-Dewell (HD) type cyclones (AS2985). The re-emergence of ‘Black Lung’ or Coal Workers Pneumoconiosis (CWP) in Queensland, Australia has re-kindled the need for better understanding of personal dust monitoring, compliance determination, accuracy, timeliness of sampling results and dust control systems. Reporting dust levels in real time empowers miners and operators to take immediate action to avoid being exposed to excessive airborne dust. Two decades of intensive research in the USA has led to the introduction of gravimetric based continuous personal dust monitors (CPDMs) called PDM3700 as compliance tools. The new real-time mass based sensor is a continuous mass based dust monitor using the Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM) principle and is regarded as significantly superior to the current gravimetric sampling methodology.Recently the overall respirable dust standard in USA coalmines has been reduced from the historic 2.0 to 1.5 mg/m3. This paper provides the results of a comparative pairwise study of an existing gravimetric sampler and the PDM3700 carried out in 3 different Australian underground mines. The field results consistently suggest that there is a significant ‘measurement bias’ between the current gravimetric HD sampler and the PDM3700 monitor operated using a similar HD type cyclone. The results show that the currently used cyclone measurements are approximately 59 per cent higher than the ‘auditable’ PDM3700 monitor data at the current compliance limit of 3 mg/m3. Based on a review of the extensive data collected, the differences can in part be attributed to the aerosol size selectivity of the samplers with the current gravimetric sampler used in mines, collecting more larger sized particles (D90 of 15 µm). This finding has significant consequences for historic exposure results and their use in medical surveillance programs, as well as the current approach to non-compliance determination.CITATION:Belle, B, 2017. Pairwise evaluation of PDM3700 and traditional gravimetric sampler for personal dust exposure assessment, in Proceedings Australian Mine Vent Conference 2017, pp 87–92 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 28, 2017

Preparation of MgO Nano-Particles with Magnesite

Sep 13, 2010

By J Williamson, M Griessmann

"An EXTENDED ABSTRACT is available for download. A full-length paper was not prepared for this presentation. The Watershed tungsten deposit is located in the Hodgkinson Province of north Queensland, Australia. The deposit is hosted by Siluro-Devonian flysch-type meta-sediments of the Hodgkinson Formation, which were subjected to four major deformation events. Mineralisation has occurred syn- to post-D4 and is related to the intrusion of S-type granitoids of the Permian Whypalla Supersuite.Watershed is located within a regional NW–SE-striking melange zone composed of brecciated and intermixed arenites and shales. The major NW–SE-striking Tullah fault zone is situated in close proximity to the east of the deposit.The Watershed deposit occurs within a tightly folded upright anticline with NW-plunging fold axis. The anticline contains a major package of coarse-grained to conglomeratic arenite, which harbours the Watershed mineralisation. Several alteration styles occur within the arenites, of which Fe-poor calc-silicate alteration dominated by clinozoisite/epidote is the most significant. Less widespread but locally important alteration styles comprise garnet-dominated calc-silicate alteration, albitisation and sericitisation. The arenites are enveloped by unmineralised carbonaceous shales and shale breccias.Tungsten mineralisation occurs solely as molybdenum-poor scheelite and can be found as three styles: disseminated mineralisation in calc-silicate altered arenites, vein-style mineralisation with quartz-albite-scheelite veins and minor but high-grade mineralisation in albitised felsic dykes.Contact metamorphic rocks and geophysical data indicate the proximity of an underlying granitic body. It is believed that this granitic body was the main driver of the hydrothermal system generating the Watershed deposit. An early mineralisation stage caused the selective calc-silicate alteration of the arenites, while a second stage caused the vein-style high-grade mineralisation. The folded shales enveloping the arenites worked as an effective barrier that kept the mineralising fluids in a confined rock volume.The scheelite mineralisation at Watershed is open to depth, with a granite-hosted porphyry or greisen-style mineralisation anticipated below the current resource.CITATION:Griessmann, M and Williamson, J, 2015. The calc-silicate-hosted Watershed tungsten deposit, far north Queensland, Australia , in Proceedings PACRIM 2015 Congress, pp 545–550 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Mar 18, 2015

By C De-Vitry

"The large Yandi channel iron deposit (CID) is located in the north-west of Western Australia and is currently mined via open pit methods. Drilling at Yandi is widely spaced and current estimates are mostly linear averages of the surrounding local samples. Linear estimates such as ordinary kriging (OK) based on block sizes that are significantly smaller than the dimensions of the drilling grid are less variable than the unknown reality (Armstrong and Champigny, 1989).Conditional simulation (CS) provides a series of plausible realisations that represent the actual grade variability at a small scale (eg 1 m + 1 m + 1 m). These simulations are very useful for a number of purposes, eg: optimising grade control, stockpiling and blending selection of optimal drill hole spacing assessing resource risk on contained tonnage and metal.At Yandi the major constituents of the ore (Fe, P2O5, SiO2, Al2O3 and LOI) are correlated to varying degrees. Independent CS of each assay variable will not reproduce these correlations. Reproducing the correlations (and the shape of scatterplots) is important if the simulations are used for the abovementioned purposes. This paper examines and compares various methods of CS that aim to reproduce the correlations between the assay variables.The CS methods evaluated in this paper are conditional co-simulation (CCS) using the linear model of co-regionalisation and two other, alternative multivariate simulation methods, which use min/max autocorrelation factors (MAF) or the stepwise conditional transform (SCT) to de-correlate assay variables before performing independent CS. It was found that CCS best reproduced the characteristics (histograms, variogram, scatterplots, etc) of the declustered drill hole data (Figure 1). Whilst simulation using MAF generally produced acceptable results, the method did not adequately reproduce the variance of the assay variables. The univariate statistics, histograms and experimental variograms were acceptable for simulations generated from the SCT. Bivariate statistics, cross-variograms and scatterplot reproduction for the SCT were unacceptable. The latter method produced inferior results because there were insufficient samples to obtain a reliable transform of the third assay variable in the transformation sequence.None of the abovementioned simulation methods provides good reproduction of all the scatterplots. This is due to the presence of clay pods, which cause some scatterplots to display two trends. These clay pods contain higher percentages of SiO2 and Al2O3 than the surrounding CID. The clay pods are generally smaller than the drill-grid dimensions. Thus their locations are typically unknown and they cannot be defined by manual interpretation, eg via wireframes. The locations of the clay pods were simulated via indicator CS. CCS was then performed separately for the clay pods and the CID. This significantly improved the reproduction of the correlation coefficients, the scatterplots and visually the simulation was more geologically realistic. Simulating the location of clay pods followed by CCS of assay variables is the recommended approach for simulation at the Yandi CID.CITATION:De-Vitry, C, 2013. Simulation of correlated assay variables - a case study from the Yandi Channel iron deposit, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2013, pp 137-148 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Aug 12, 2013

Copper, zinc, lead, and silver in the discordant magmatic-hydrothermal orebody of the Conrad Mine, N.S.W., all have a relatively high mean abundance. Any single concordant sulphide orebody containing the same metals has a similar order of mean abundance of only one or two of these, particularly copper, copper and zinc, or zinc and lead.The relative abundances of the metals in the Conrad orebody vary more widely than in concordant orebodies, and the lead-zinc-silver and copper-zinc-lead relationships are significantly different.INTRODUCTIONIn previous investigations of metal abundances in sulphide ores, the basis of selection of the orebodies was their form, and to some extent their geological setting, rather than hypotheses concerning their origin. In all cases they were generally concordant with the bedding of the sedimentary or meta-sedimentary rocks enclosing them, and most occurred in volcanic-sedimentary sequences. Their mineralogies were simple, and they were copper, copper-zinc, zinc or lead-zinc rich in composition. Most were of the type ascribed by several authors to exhalative-sedimentary processes.In one of these investigations (Stanton, 1958), it was pointed out that since the metals in ores of this type showed similar abundance patterns and behaviour, it would clearly be of interest to examine, and to compare with them, orthomagmatic and vein types, unquestionably derived from their igneous rock associates.The present investigation is concerned with a single orebody, of clearly discordant type, and of indisputable hydrothermal origin. The abundance and behaviour of copper, zinc, lead, and silver have been determined and compared to similar data fOl!' the concordant type. Such a comparison tests the possibility that metal abundance patterns of base metal ores may be indicative of the mode of ore deposition.

Jan 1, 1963

The C.S.I.R.O. acid alumina process employs the essential steps of digestion, hydrolysis and calcination to produce pure alumina from ores too high in silica or too low in grade for the Bayer process. The two latter stages have been described in some detail previously but the digestion stage requires separate discussion since ores vary widely in composition and reactivity. Kaolinitic clays require roasting to 800°C to render the alumina soluble in the 11 per cent sulphuric acid used in the process while some ferruginous laterites require roasting to reduce the reactivity of iron minerals.The iron content of pregnant solutions is kept at a low figure by digesting at temperatures where the solubilities of ferric oxide or basic ferric sulphates are small. A two-stage, counter-current digestion is necessary to extract a high percentage of alumina from the ores and to produce a basic pregnant liquor with an SO3 : AI 203 ratio of 1'\1 suitable for high temperature hydrolysis. The second stage of digestion, called the modification stage, treats slightly acid liquors with excess of ore in the temperature range 1200-1400C.The first stage operates at 170°-1900C to extract further alumina from modification residues, using recycled acid obtained from later steps of the process. Both temperature ranges are critical for economic operation and for proper control of the iron content of solutions. In batch experiments, 30 min is regarded as a suitable retention time for digestion and modification; ores which require much longer than this are less suitable for the process. Impurities such as silica, and titanium and vanadium oxides are discarded in the residue along with iron oxide, and do not contaminate the final product. Bivalent metallic sulphates such as MgSO4, can build up in the circuit to a very considerable degree without affecting product purity.Comparison with other processes shows that the C.S.I.R.O. process is superior for control of contamination by iron, which is the major problem in acid processes. The pure intermediate product (3Al203.4S03.9H20) is also more convenient for calcination to alumina than the hydrated aluminium sulphate usually recovered in other processes. Detailed cost comparisons must await pilot-plant evaluation of the C.S.LR.O process.

Jan 1, 1964

By J S-L Chan, J C. T Chu

"An EXTENDED ABSTRACT is available for download. A full-length paper was not prepared for this presentation. In its industrial days, Hong Kong’s mining industry was thriving, benefitting from the mineral occurrences that are related to the regional Mesozoic igneous and hydrothermal activities.Hong Kong was unique in the mining sector as it was so small in landmass but with such a rich variety of commodities discovered. There are records of commercial exploitation of tungsten, iron, lead, silver, beryl, graphite, quartz, feldspar and kaolin in Hong Kong before 1981. Of these, most of them are located in the New Territories.The Lin Ma Hang lead mine was operated in the 19th century by the Portuguese and was abandoned in 1958. The Needle Hill tungsten deposit was discovered in 1935 during construction of the Jubilee Reservoir. The Ma On Shan iron mine, which operated for 70 years between 1906 and 1976, was the largest mine in the history of Hong Kong. The Mui Wo lead-silver mine on Lantau Island can be traced back to the Ming Dynasty 400 years ago. West Brother Island, which extracted graphite from 1952 to 1973, was levelled in the 1990s to make way for the development of the airport at Chek Lap Kok.Nowadays, these mines are disused and abandoned, but this extended abstract reviews the legacy of the mining industry in Hong Kong to understand the impact that it had on techniques, the economy and culture.CITATION:Chu, J C T and Chan, J S-L, 2015. The history of mining in Hong Kong , in Proceedings PACRIM 2015 Congress, pp 109–114 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Mar 18, 2015

The purpose of this paper is to outline current research on the Paparoa and, at the request of conference organisers, to present a general introduction to the geology of the Greymouth Coalfield as background to more specialised papers. Few results of my present work will be given; these can be presented at the next conference. Briefly, the research aims for an understanding of the controls which depositional environment has exerted on coal character, to be reached by a study of coal type and thickness, shape and extent of seams, integrated with a basinal analysis of the coal measures. An accurate description of the coalfield in these terms should facilitate prediction of subsurface trends, with possible application to the planning of drilling programs, and to mine development. Although study of Paparoa coal types is included here as only part of the research, coal type should be recognised as an important concept which has until revently been almost entirely neglected in New Zealand.

Jan 1, 1979

By R N. Robson, A B. Christie, I J. Graham

Strategy development by the minerals industry identified the fragmented management of mineral resources as a significant impediment to the discovery and development of New Zealand Æs mineral resources. The total gross value of New Zealand Æs potential resources of coal and minerals is estimated at about $400 billion, but their potential value is not being realised. The management of minerals is now largely under the control of 86 local authorities (regional and district councils) and the lack of recognition of the significance of the sector has lead to inconsistencies in the way minerals are managed. The industry strategy influenced science funding for minerals, with the result that the 'mineral wealth' component now includes research on making better use of resource data in minerals management. Initially this research has targeted Otago and Northland regions where a number of initiatives are now in progress.   In Otago the Regional Council has budgeted to contribute $1 million towards a regional geophysical survey to advance mineral exploration and the management of subsurface resources in the region, to work cooperatively towards improving public awareness of the significance of minerals to regional economic activity, and to better coordinate policy-making for minerals at regional and district levels.   Crown Minerals, and the Far North and Whangarei district councils are considering providing funding support for an economic study of the mineral potential of Northland, building on a mineral resource assessment undertaken by GNS Science. Enterprise Northland is adding minerals to their list of potential growth sectors, and is supporting the operation of a Northland region minerals focus group.   Regional development agencies and local authorities have shown that they are willing to include mineral resources in their development strategies and to provide for them in policies and plans when supplied with information and assisted with technical support.

Jan 1, 2006