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By H. Antrekowitsch

Nowadays, the pyrometallurgical treatment in copper smelters is the common process for the recycling of metals from the electronic scrap. Furthermore the European Directive on the Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and the Directive on the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), increase the importance of electronic scrap recycling. Besides these a high amount of plastic and inert components in these materials leads to problems at the processing. An optimisation concerning the internal recovery and the high amount of plastic is necessary to reach the recycling quota of the European directive. The majority of the scrap is treated mechanically in order to separate in a first step plastics from metals, iron from nonferrous metals and harmful substances from valuable materials. But the quality of the different fraction often rather low and further treatment leads to higher costs. Therefore an interaction between mechanical treatment and metallurgical processing should be realised. The Christian Doppler Laboratory for Secondary Metallurgy of Nonferrous Metals at the Institute of Nonferrous Metallurgy at the University of Leoben carried out investigations concerning the optimisation of the metallurgical recycling and the treatment of the input materials especially of printed circuit boards.

Jan 1, 2006

By Junji Shibata

Keywords: Synergistic effect, Solvent extraction, Nickel ion, extractant mixture Waste solution from the Ni non-electric plating process contains 4.0 kg/m3 Ni (II), 0.1 kg/m3 Fe (III), 0.01 kg/m3 Zn (II), 48 kg/m3 SO42-, 98 kg/m3 HPO32- and 31 kg/m3 lactic acid as a typical composition. Solvent extraction, cementation, ion exchange resin and precipitation methods may be used for the treatment of this kind of solution. In this study, solvent extraction of Ni (II) is investigated by using two kinds of extractants in order to clarify the relationship between extraction equilibrium (static synergistic effect) and extraction rate (dynamic synergistic effect) for several extractant mixtures. The static synergistic effect does not take place significantly for the extractant mixtures of acidic extractants and neutral organphosphorous compounds, while a large static synergistic effect is confirmed when the extractant mixtures of acidic extractants and nitrogen-containing compounds are used. Nickel ions can be extracted in the wide pH range of 3.0-8.0 without any pH adjustment by using the several extractant mixtures. At the same time, the extraction rate remarkably increases by using the extractant mixtures of acidic extractants and nitrogen-containing compounds.

Jan 1, 2005

By Theo Lehner

Turning matte into anodes continues to be an area to watch: for visitors to see pyrometallurgy in action; for metallurgists to keep up with modern smelting furnaces and ever increasing production rates; for management to remain profitable using more tools than taught in school; and for environmentalists to detect the last small clouds from the ever cleaner smelter. Current converting practices have been screened and analyzed, and today, converting and casting is a modern industry. An impressive, though typical learning curve of converter productivity may be detected. Local conditions such as availability and type of raw materials, products extracted, cost factors, etc., have stimulated the development of add-ons or even alternatives to the still dominant method of converting by Peirce-Smith technology. Turning blister copper into anodes follows a similar path, namely increased productivity and improved quality. We dare to predict that development will continue.

Jan 1, 2005

By Omid Marzoughi

Chromium has a wide range of applications, including as an alloy addition in various steels and also as a corrosion resistance coating. Carbothermal reduction of chromite ore (FeCr2O4) in a submerged arc furnace is an important industrial process for extracting chromium, but the energy consumption is excessive. It is suggested that one area for future research is the low temperature carbothermic solid state reduction of chromite to produce an intermediate product, which can subsequently be upgraded to ferrochromium. In this regard, a thermodynamic model has been developed to investigate this process and the effects of temperature, carbon additions and ore composition on the recovery of chromium and the grade of the ferrochromium, have been studied. Further development of the model may allow it to be applied to the simulation of other processes for the recovery of chromium from chromite ores.

By Robert C. Laudon

Spectral reflectance data for 335 minerals, including 228 minimum-maximum combinations for anisotropic minerals giving a total of 563 data sets, have been collected from the literature and combined into a single database. Quantitative color values for x, y, Y, Ad , and Pe referred to ICI standard i11uminant C have been calculated from the spectral reflectance data and are included in the database. The programs plot spectral reflectance curves together with all quantitative color data for each mineral in the database. The plots and data can be directed to a dot-matrix printer such that a databook of quantitative color and spectral reflectance having one mineral per page can be generated for the ore microscopy laboratory. In addition, by sorting the database and grouping the minerals, groups or individual minerals can be plotted on the chromaticity diagram, and this plot can also be sent to a dot-matrix printer. The programs are written in compiled BASICA for an IBM-PC with graphics capabilities and at least 128KB random access memory (RAM). The databases are accessible either through the BASIC programs or through any commercial database system capable of loading and writing to an ASCII format sequential file. The programs and database are available by sending a blank diskette and self addressed, stamped envelope to the authors.

Jan 1, 1987

By Zhang Chuanfu, Tan Pengfu

"A thermodynamic model is developed to predict the distribution behaviors of Ni, Co, Sn, Pb, Zn, As, Sb, Bi, Au and Ag in copper pyrometallurgical process. In this model, as more as 21 elements (Cu, S, Fe, Ni, Co, Sn, As, Sb, Bi, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, 0, N, C, H, Ca, Mg, Al, and Si) and 72 compounds (in fayalite-slag-making system) or 74 compounds (in ferrite-slag-making system) are considered. Accessory-element behavior is studied for two types of slag , fayalite and ferrite, and two levels of oxidation. The allowance is also made to account for physical entrainment in the melts.-Model simulations are carried out to study the effects of controllable process parameters such as feed composition, smelting temperature, degree of oxygen enrichment and volume of oxygen enriched air. The model can be used in copper flash process, Mitsubishi process and Noranda process. The predictions by the present computer model are compared with the known industrial data from Gui Xi Smelter in China, Home Smelter in Canada and Naoshima Smelter in Japan and excellent agreement between calculations and industrial data is obtained. In this paper, the effects of oxygen enrichment, matte grade, smelting temperature, and types of slag on accessory-element behavior among matte, slag and gaseous phase have been elucidated.I . IntroductionThe presence of trace quantities of minor elements such as As, Sb and Bi in copper significantly reduces its ductility, electrical conductivity, and lowers its thermal conductivity. Embrittlement of copper also occurs due to impurity-phase precipitates at the copper grain boundary interfaces. They deteriorate not only the electrical conductivity of copper but its workability in hot working."

Jan 1, 1998

By Emmanuel N. Zevgolis

Energy required for roasting and smelting of a nickeliferous laterite ore by the rotary kiln - electric furnace process is investigated. From this work it comes that thermal energy is about 65% of the total energy needed and the rest is electrical. Also, 61.3% of thermal energy input in the roasting step (of all combustibles fed into the rotary kilns) is used for pre - heating, 11.6% for pre - reduction and the rest (27.1%) corresponds to the energy of the remaining carbon in the rotary kiln products (i.e., calcine, dust and coatings). Carbon entering the system is used as follows: 57.9% for combustion, 37.1% for reduction and the rest (5.0%) remains unburnt. Exploitation of energy from gases of both furnaces, as well as the higher possible reduction degree, the optimum temperature of the calcine and also elimination of the excess air in the rotary kilns, improve significantly energy balance and economics of the process.

Jan 1, 2006

By N. B. Gray, A. E. Guerra, D. E. Morton

"The formation of splash in pyrometallurgical operations that involve the injection of gases into a liquid has been the subject of a number of studies over the last few decades. Given the complexity of the phenomena, there have been some advances in understanding the microscale formation of splash but the ability to accurately predict the amount and character of the splash formed is still in its infancy. First, the macroscale mechanisms for splash formation is very varied. Second, the timescales for splash formation are very small, usually less than 100 milliseconds, making experiments elucidating the formation of splash difficult and costly. Work at the GKW CRC has shown that the microscale mechanism of splash formation is primarily is due to the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Substantial progress has been made in understanding the behaviour of large bubbles in effecting splash formation and a simple model has been developed to estimate the behaviour of splash formed from a top submerged lance. Direct numerical computation of splash formation using the GKMAC codes developed at the Centre has been successful in simulating the impact of liquid drops onto a liquid bath.IntroductionInjection of gases into melts is used in the metallurgical industry to promote mixing to ensure acceptable heat and mass transfer rates, conveying solids for alloying, provide efficient contact for gas-melt reactions, and as a reactant. High gas injection rates bring about the formation of splash and slop. Extensive splash formation leads to loss of valuable product, creation of safety hazards, formation of accretion on refractory lining and exhaust ducts, and increased load on dust removal equipment. Many operators and researchers have claimed that splash formation is the limiting factor in many gas injected processes. The problems listed above lead to loss of production and increased maintenance, adding to the cost of processing base metals. Over the last five years, the GKW CRC has been studying the formation of splash from a number of sources. They include the impingment of drops on liquids[ l·2.31, slopping of bath liquidI4.51, breakup of gas bubbles at the liquid-gas interfacel61, shearing of liquids by gases[7·81, and impact of packets of fluids on solidsl81. Theoretically, the extreme deformation of fluid shape and the influence of surface tension makes the simulation of flow resulting from only a drop impacting on a liquid surface a very challenging computational fluid dynamics problem. Recently, we have been successful in simulating the formation of the Rayleigh jet resulting from a drop impact showing the effect of drop Froude number on the shape of the Rayleigh jet."

Jan 1, 1996

By Oliver Zach

To know as much as possible about the condition of the refractory material (lining thickness, slag layer, build ups, ...) in an high temperature furnace is very important due to the safety and economic impacts. The new CONSCAN system offers the possibility to measure the inner surface of an furnace, and based on this results to calculate the thickness of the refractory lining, slag layer, build ups,.... The CONSCAN System provides this results as figures and graphics. This system is also working under hot conditions so it is not necessary to cool down the furnace. Based on these results the process control and the refractory lining concept could be optimized for maximum campaign life of the furnace.

Jan 1, 2006

By Murat Baydogan

Effect of retrogression and reaging treatment on hardness and stress corrosion cracking resistance of 7075 aluminum alloy was investigated. As received 7075 alloys in T6 temper condition were retrogressed at 170, 220, 240 and 380°C for different durations between 15 s and 60 min. Subsequent reaging was made at the T6 aging condition. Treated materials exhibited higher hardness and better stress corrosion cracking resistance than T6 temper in a wide range of retrogression temperature and time. The highest hardness was obtained after retrogression at 170°C for 210 s followed by reaging, corresponding to 20% hardness improvement. Improvement in stress corrosion cracking resistance of the alloy by as much as 85% was also observed. In this paper, improvements in hardness and stress corrosion cracking resistance are discussed on the basis of the microstructural changes during retrogression and reaging treatment.

Jan 1, 2006

By M. N. H. Khan

CSIRO has been experimenting with supersonic flows as a method of rapidly quenching metallic vapours. Cooling rates above 106 °C/s have been achieved. The supersonic flow conditions are achieved by adiabatic expansion of the vapour through a Laval nozzle into a vacuum chamber. This paper will describe the basic physics of the process, outlining computer fluid dynamic (CFD) modelling of flow in the nozzle, the effects of different flow conditions on the condensation process and discuss the practical design issues associated with operating supersonic nozzles. Results obtained from a CFD model of the nozzle, which compared two methods of incorporating condensation, showed that inclusion of condensation substantially changes the conditions in the nozzle. Most noticeably, the effect of condensation produces a region in the nozzle where the temperature remains almost constant.

Jan 1, 2006

By Rick Honaker

Rare earth elements (REEs) contained in coal and associated mineral matter exist in several forms including micro-dispersed minerals, ion adsorption onto clay surfaces, and chemically bound. Tests found that REEs can be effectively recovered from certain components of three coal sources by leaching under mild conditions followed by solvent extraction. A range of pH values were evaluated at solution temperatures of 25 and 75 °C. When using 1.2 M of sulfuric acid, nearly 85% recovery of the REEs was extracted from the middlings material collected from an operating plant. Acid leaching of a second middling source from another plant resulted in 60% of the total REEs being recovered under the same leaching conditions. Solvent extraction treatment of the leachate produced from six different coal sources resulted in products containing up to 50% total REEs from feedstocks starting with around 300 ppm.

By Wen-Ming Chien

Keywords: AN-KN Phase Transition, Lattice Parameters of AN-KN, X-ray Diffraction The lattice parameters of the low and high temperature phase of KNO3-rich (in NH4NO3) solid solutions have been determined by the X-ray diffraction method. The low temperature single KNO3 phase (KN II) are from 92%-100% KNO3 in NH4NO3 composition range and from room temperature to 393 K showing in X-ray diffraction patterns. The high temperature KNO3 phase (KN I) showed very broad composition range between 20% to 100% KNO3. The lattice parameters of KNO3-rich (KN II and KN I) solid solutions have been calculated at different temperature range. The volumes of orthorhombic KN II phase decrease from 0.3208(3) to 0.3195(3) nm³ at the room temperature as the compositions increase from 95% to 100% KNO3. The lattice constants of the hexagonal KN I phase show that there is no significant change in a-direction when the temperature increases. Details X-ray results and lattice expansion equations during heating will be presented.

Jan 1, 2005

"Many industrial processes involve materials that are subject to temperature change and thermal stress. Examples range from the casting of large metallic products to the cooling and reliability of small electronic components. Thermally induced stress is a major concern as it can lead to material damage and product failure. Material properties, thermal and mechanical, and process conditions such as the size and location of a feeder in metals casting, or the power dissipation in a computer chip, will govern the magnitude of these stresses. Temperature may also be influenced by fluid flow, for example, the airflow over a computer chip in a laptop will govern the rate of heat extraction, hence the temperature gradients in the chip and the evolving thermal stresses.This paper provides details on the governing equations for heat transfer (temperature) and solid mechanics (stress), their degree of coupling, and the numerical techniques used to solve them. Three examples are discussed to illustrate the use thermomechanical modelling. These also provide an insight into the degree of coupling required between the equations. The first example, involves thermal cycling of electronic components where a prescribed temperature field is applied. As temperature is known, this example only requires the solution of the stress equation. The second example also involves the modelling of an electronic component where the temperature field is also calculated. In both of these examples, the stress calculation is dependent on the temperature field, but the temperature calculation is not dependent of the solution of the stress equation (one-way coupling). The final example provides details on modelling the metals casting process. Both the temperature and stress equations are solved but, unlike the previous two examples, in this case the temperature field is dependent on the results from the stress calculation (two-way coupling)."

Jan 1, 2001

By C. Landolt

Inco's Copper Cliff Smelter Complex produces some 11 5,000 tonnes per year of nickel and 120,000 tonnes per year of copper. The Smelter flowsheet has changed a number of times over the years. The most recent changes were effected in the mid-1980's in response to new realities in metal markets and heightened awareness about the workplace environment. By 1994, the flowsheet will undergo yet another metamorphosis as part of Inco's SO2 Abatement Program. The paper discusses the improvements implemented during the 1980's and projects the processing in the Smelter through 1994.

Jan 1, 1993

By Elli Nurminen

Keywords: Thermal conductivity of sulphates, flash smelting, heat recovery boiler, flue dust Accretions and build-ups in metallurgical heat recovery boilers decrease the efficiency of the heat transfer and may cause process shut downs. Transient plane source method (Hot Disk) has been applied to measure the thermal conductivities of the Copper Flash Smelting flue dusts. Thermal conductivities of copper, iron and zinc sulphates, and process flue dusts were measured. The results indicate that all the components are effective thermal insulators, having a thermal conductivity of less than 1 W/mK. Decreasing dust layer porosity has an increasing effect on thermal conductivity. Insulating layers on the boiler walls decrease greatly the heat transfer efficiency of the boiler. The gathered information will be used in CFD-modelling of the process, and in the process control.

Jan 1, 2005

By Pengfu Tan

A thermodynamic model and computer program, CuModel, has been developed to model the distribution behaviors of Cu, Fe, S, O, Ni, Co, Sn, Pb, Zn, As, Sb, Bi, Au and Ag, copper loss in the slag, and heat balance in copper smelting process, matte converting process and copper con-tinuous smelting process. It can be predicted for any set of controllable process parameters such as feed composition, smelting temperature, degree of oxygen enrichment and volume of oxy-gen-enriched air. This model accounts for physical entrainment between matte and slag phases. It can be used in Isasmelt process, copper flash smelting process, Mitsubishi process, P-S con-verting process and Noranda process. The predictions by the present computer model are com-pared with the known commercial data from Guixi Smelter in China, PASAR Corporation in Philippines, Horne Smelter in Canada, MIM Limited in Australia and Naoshima Smelter in Ja-pan. The agreements between the computer predictions and the commercial data are excellent. In this paper, the applications of CuModel in the copper metallurgical industries have been pre-sented. CuModel has been used by Daye Smelter and Guixi Smelter in China, and by PASAR in Philippines as well.

Jan 1, 2004

By Alexey T. Kovalev, Irina A. Khabarova, Valentine A. Chanturiya, Igor Zh. Bunin, Elizaveta V. Koporulina

"The paper presents new theoretical and experimental results about mechanisms of disintegration of mineral complexes and structural transformations of the sulfide surface under high-power nanosecond electromagnetic pulses (HPEMP). The heated gas outflow from nanosecond breakdown channels of sulfide minerals under HPEMP is considered. It is shown that the gas outflow from channels can be an additional destructive factor in the processes of the electric pulse discharge disintegration of mineral complexes. It is shown that the effect of HPEMP changes chemical surface composition and, respectively, technological properties of pyrrhotite and pentlandite. Morphology and elementary composition of new micro- and nanoformations on mineral surface of pentlandite and pyrrhotite have been investigated using up-to-date methods of SEM/EDX and Scanning Probe Microscopy. Preliminary electropulse effect on mineral products before flotation allows producing optimal conditions for flotation separation of pentlandite and pyrrhotite owing to forming the new nanophases and defects on the surface of sulfides.IntroductionThe effectiveness of High-Power Nanosecond Pulses in the disintegration and liberation of fine disseminated mineral complexes and the recovery of micro- and nanoparticles of precious metals from refractory ores was demonstrated in [1, 2]. Possible mechanisms of selective disintegration were considered in [1-3]. It has been shown both theoretically and experimentally that electric breakdowns can play an important role in the nanosecond pulsed treatment of milled minerals (e.g., semiconductor sulfides and quartz with particle sizes of 100 µm to 2-3 mm) that are carriers of finely disseminated gold and other valuable components. Electric discharges in such minerals are accompanied by a destruction of integrity in the form of breakdown channels and the formation of a system of cracks around these channels [3]. The development of the domains of induced cracks around the channels is determined by the pressure of evaporated material in the breakdown channel. Upon an instantaneous energy release in a channel (nanosecond discharges), the change in its transverse size and in the gas density and pressure in the channel is determined by (i) the radial motion of the evaporation wave, (ii) the radial expansion of the channel, and (iii) the heated gas outflow from the channel. The evaporation wave moves with a speed on the same order of magnitude as the speed of sound (or greater) and travels a distance of around the initial channel radius, i.e., a much smaller distance than the breakdown channel length."

Jan 1, 2011

The purpose of this study was to investigate the immobilization as a host for metallic pollutants (Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn) by ettringite phase. Ettringite phase is produced through hydration reaction of calcium aluminate with gypsum. From the XRD patterns, it is known that the distance between spaces in 010 planes in ettringite crystal increase with an increase of ionic radius of heavy metal except Pb; no big difference is shown. For this reason, the d-value of 010 planes in ettringite crystal increased with the substitution of Cr, Cu and Zn having a big Al ironic radius. But in case of Pb, because the substitution occurred at calcium site, it does not influence to increase d-value of 010 planes.

Jan 1, 2006

By Sergio Neves Monteiro

This work had as its objective the characterization of a waste material, steel slag, generated from an integrated steel plant, with a view to its recycling and incorporation into red ceramics fabrication. The characterization was performed in terms of chemical composition by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), particles size distribution, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal analysis (DTA/TG) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results indicate that the steel slag presents high amount of Ca, Fe, Mg and Si. The weight loss of the steel slag at temperatures above 800oC is associated with calcium carbonate decomposition. The coarse particle size of the steel slag is inadequate for its direct recycling into red ceramic fabrication. It is necessary to screen or to grind the waste. As a possible solution, it is suggested that screening or grinding the steel slag to a convenient particle size distribution would allow its successful industrial incorporation into red ceramics products.

Jan 1, 2006