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By B. H. Caudle, W. J. Bernard

Factors which influence the success or failure of a waterflood can seldom be determined in the laboratory. For this reason pilot waterfloods are initiated in a repreventative portion of the oil reservoir in question. For a pilot flood to predict quantitatively the recovery to be expected in a field-wide waterflood operation, the pilot area must behave as though it were confined (surrounded by similar areas). In this study, laboratory fluid-flow models were used to determine the simplest pilot pattern, for particular conditions of mobility ratio and initial gas saturation, that would behave as though it were confined. Pilot patterns studied ranged in complexity from a single inverted five-spot to a grouping of nine regular five-spots. Only the innermost producing well in each pattern was studied. Model results showed that the optimum number of wells in the pattern depends upon the oil-water mobility ratio and the expected oil-bank size. Unfavorable mobility ratios will, in general, require more wells in the pilot pattern than will favorable mobility ratios. Pilot patterns in reservoirs which contain a dispersed, flowable, free gas saturation will require fewer wells than for the under-saturated case. The single inverted five-spot pattern was found to be unsatisfactory for predicting behavior of fully developed waterfloods. In particular, it is possible that, in reservoirs which contain a flowable, dispersed gas phase, the oil bank will never be observed at the producers due to the large amounts of free gas which continue to be produced with the oil. INTRODUCTION One method which has been used to predict the performance of a waterflood is the pilot flood. The pilot waterflood is a flood which involves only a small cluster of the reservoir wells and is located in a small, representative portion of the reservoir. The object is that oil produced from the pilot can, in some way, be related to the oil recovery to be expected from a field-wide expansion of the waterflood. However, these field pilot waterfloods have often been unreliable in the prediction of oil recovery in a fully developed waterflood. This unreliability has also been demonstrated in several laboratory studies of pilot floods. Some of the investigators have shown that there are situations in which the pilot flood oil production is far too optimistic with respect to the oil recovery in the fully de- veloped flood. Others4-G have shown that the pilot results can also be pessimistic, especially if the pilot waterflood is initiated in an oil reservoir which has been depleted by primary recovery and is at very low pressure. The major reason for this unreliability of pilot water-floods is the migration of fluids into or out of the pilot area. By the well-known method of images, if straight lines can be drawn to represent vertical planes of symmetry in a porous medium which contains pressure sources and sinks (injectors and producers), then these lines are invariant streamlines, or lines across which there is no potential gradient, and therefore no flow. In an actual reservoir, these lines of symmetry can never be established exactly because of reservoir inhomogeneities and irregular reservoir boundaries. However, if the reservoir is relatively large and contains wells in repetitive patterns, these lines of symmetry are commonly assumed to exist for the pattern units sufficiently far removed from the reservoir boundary. Lines of symmetry for the five-spot injection pattern are shown in Fig. 1. Each five-spot unit in this figure can be considered confined with respect to flow across its boundary. In pilot floods this is not the case. The lines of symmetry for the pilot patterns investigated in this study are shown in Fig. 2. It is obvious that the fluid within these pilots is not confined and is therefore able to migrate into or out of the pilot area. Intuitively, one can see that, if more wells are added to the pilot, the innermost unit tends to behave more and more like the confined pattern. However, there is a practical limit to the number of wells which should be placed in the pilot. This limit is usually determined by economic factors. It was the purpose of this study to use laboratory fluid-flow models to determine which of the previously mentioned pilot patterns will force the innermost producing well to behave as it would in a fully developed waterflood. Since fluid migration is influenced by initial saturation conditions and the mobility ratio, these factors were included in the study. The ultimate objective of this study was to develop data which would allow the operator to choose a pilot pattern and operating conditions that will yield a production history which can be applied directly as an estimate of the performance of each production well of the fully developed waterflood. BASIS FOR THE STUDY The basic problem of field pilot floods is the migration of the reservoir fluids into or out of the pilot area. This problem has been the subject of previously reported model studies on pilot floods. These studies have been concerned mainly with the development of arbitrary "correction factors" to be applied to the simple, unconfined pilot systems such as the single five-spot. The correction factors were intended to adjust the production history of the un-

By Ellsworth Daggett

In the first paper on the Russell process presented by Mr. Stetefeldt, in May, 1884 (Transactions, xiii.), the process was treated from a purely theoretical standpoint.. 111 his second paper of October, 1886 (Transactions, xv,), the details of the plant, the chemicals used, and the manipulation in both mill and laboratory were treated. The aim of the present paper is to present economical results recently attained, new data affecting the preparation and manipulation of ore in the mill, and a more complete and systematic scheme of laboratory work. This paper is compiled mainly from Mr. Russell's notes of his own experience. Many of these notes, particularly those relating to work at Cusihuiriachic,* Mexico, have been upon work directly under the personal observation of the compiler, who takes pleasure in thus presenting to the Institute, data and considerations of much interest and value pot only to users of the Russell process, but to mill men generally. The description of the chemicals used and of the preparation of the mill-solutions being' in part the same now as when Mr. Stetefeldt's second paper was published, some use is here made of portions of that paper. No theoretical matter is here given. For a treatise containing also the theory of the process the reader is referred to Mr. Stetefeldt's complete work on " Lixiviation of Silver Ores by Hyposulphite Solutions," now in preparation. To facilitate the consultation of this paper, the following synopsis and index is prefixed. The figures in parenthesis indicate the page of this paper on which the subject is treated.

Jan 1, 1888

By Edward L. Beutner, Robert M. Crump

Benson Mines low-grade iron ore reserve is a replacement deposit within the Grenville gneisses of the Adirondacks. The average grade of the crude ore is about 23 per cent iron. The iron minerals are principally magnetite and hematite disseminated throughout the gneisses as discrete grains about 1 mm in size. Both the ores that are beneficiated by magnetic means and the non-magnetic ores that are treated by a gravity method of concentration are found in stratigraphically different positions but are mined from one open pit, which is about 2.5 miles long and 800 feet wide and are treated separately. The gneisses are described and named according to the distinctive mineralogy of each. Recognition of the gneissic types permits the interpretation of the structure as a northward-plunging syncline overturned to the west. A large subsidiary anticline-syncline complex occurs on the east limb of the major syncline. Iron minerals in sufficient quantity to be considered ore are confined to areas where the footwall rock has been overturned to become the hanging wall.

Jan 1, 1968

[A Aall, Christian H., M49 A Dir, Smelt & Ref, Am. Metal Climax, Inc., 1270 Ave. of the Americas, New York 20, N. Y. Aaroe, S. L., A54 A VP, W. S. Tyler Co. of Canada Ltd., P. O. Box 100, St. Catharines, Ont., Canada Abalos, Teodulo Q., J57 A Prod Frmn, Lepanto Cons. Mining Co., Lepanto, Mt. Province, Philippines Abbitt, James M., A54 770 Sole Blvd., Bartow, Fla. Abdullah, M. Y., J53 Dept. of Mines Res. Div., P. O. Box 1016 Tiger Lane,-Ipoh Peram, Malaya Abel, John F., Jr., J53 F Mine Engr, Thompson Creek Coal & Coke, Carbondale, Colo. Abell, Leo M., M31 B Const Supt, Phelps Dodge Corp., Morenci, Ariz. Abendroth, H. E., A57 Mangore Australia Pty. Ltd., 901 Hay St., Perth, W. Aust.,, Australia Abenius, Hakan V., M52 Falun, Sweden]

Jan 1, 1961

By Louise Reber

THE town of Jerome is located in Yavapai County in north central Arizona. It has a population of over 6000 people and the two important mines of the district, the United Verde and the United Verde Extension, lie almost within its limits. Perched high on the southwest side of the Verde Valley, at elevations of 4800 and 5500 ft.. (1463 and 1676 m.), both mines have long tunnels from their lower levels through which ore is hauled to their respective smelters. The two smelter towns of Clarkdale and Verde, out in. the center of the valley and about 2000 ft. (609 m.) below, form part of the wide panorama that meets the eye at Jerome. This panorama and the topographic and surface features and the geologic formations are shown in a separate pamphlet. In the vicinity of Jerome, the great southern escarpment of the Arizona plateau forms the northeast side of the Verde valley. The general level of this escarpment, or "the rim" as it is called, is about 4000 ft. above the Verde River. A corresponding elevation is reached only by the, highest parts of the Black Hills, which bound the valley to the southwest. The two lava-capped mesas, known as Mingus and Woodschute Mountains, form the culmination of the Black Hills. That part of the old Black Hills mining district which lies between their crests -and the Verde River is now known as the Jerome or Verde copper district. However, if the smelters are not included, a strip about 7 mi. long and 3 mi. wide (11 by 5 km.) embraces practically all the properties belonging to the Jerome district. This strip lies parallel to and along the side of the Verde valley from about First View, 2 mi. northwest of Jerome, to the neighborhood of Allen Spring, near the south end of Mingus. Mountain. The rank of the district in copper production, as well as features of peculiar geologic interest in connection with the ore occurrences, entitle the district to much more consideration than it has received in the literature of copper mining. Arizona stands preeminent as a copper-producing state. In 1918, it produced four-tenths of the total amount produced in the United States, and nearly equaled the, combined production of its three chief competitors, Montana, Michigan, and Utah. The production of the Jerome district places it in the sixth place among the copper

Jan 8, 1920

By Harold L. Overton, Leonard B. Lipson

The first paper in this series1 outlined practical methods for applying the theory of steady-state flow of an ideal Bingham plastic liquid through a circular pipe and axially through a stationary concentric annulus to the enginekring analysis of friction loss problems. In the present paper the properties of another useful rheological model, the pseudoplastic generalized Newtonian liquid, are considered. The terminology applied to the rheological models is derived from the following classification of rheological models. The term "generalized Newtonian" is a class designation applied to models which do not have yield points but which exhibit a dependence on shear rate. The term "pseudoplastic" applies to a sub-group of models within this class which exhibit a decrease in "viscosity" with increasing shear rate. The term "power model" refers to a mathematical model proposed for describing the behavior of the pseudoplastic liquid. This model is of interest since certain of the salt saturated, oil emulsion, and "low solids" drilling fluids, inverted emulsion- and oil-base drilling fluids, aqueous gels, gelled crudes and blocking agents employed in hydraulic fracturing operations are of this type. The present treatment considers the equations describing steady-state Poiseuille flow through a circular pipe and a stationary concentric annul us, and Couette flow between concentric rotating cylinders for a particular pseudoplastic model. As in the previous paper' it is demonstrated how these equations can be applied to engineering calculations of friction losses. Graphical procedures for recovering the various flow curves and cxample calculations are included. A method for simplifying turbulent-flow correlations is also proposed. PROPERTIES OF PSEUDOPLASTIC GENERALIZED NEWTONIAN LIQUID In contrast to the Bingham plastic the generalized Newtonian liquid is yield point-free. However, in the flow region the relation between stress and rate of shear is not linear as it is with ordinary Newtonian fluids. If the stress increases with shear rate at a less than linear rate the system is called pseudoplastic. While there is no yield point in this system, the Bingham advocates' coined the term pseudoplastic to distinguish this kind of behavior from Bingham plastic behavior. For the pseudoplastic a plot of flow rate vs friction loss or rpm vs torque, from pipe flow or rotational viscometer measurements, respectively, generally has three qualities: (1) it can be clearly extrapolated toward the origin; (2) there is very little slope at the origin. This accounts for the high apparent viscosities at low mixing and pumping rates; and (3) the flow curve possesses a continuous curvature which gradually diminishes as the shear increases. Rheological measurements on a pseudoplastic liquid can be easily misinterpreted as indicating Bingham plastic behavior. A typical case in point is illustrated in Fig. 1. These data were obtained from measurements on an oil-emulsion mud using a commercially available rotational-type viscometer (Model 35 Fann V-G meter). Applying the "two-point"* method3 gives a plastic viscosity of 17 cp and a yield point of 24 lb/100 ft2; at the same time weighting material settles very easily in this system. This illustrates that it is not possible to distinguish between the pseudoplastic and the Bingham plastic from only two data points. It is possible to determine qualitatively which model is more appropriate by a combination of dynamic and static measurements. Experience indicates that the simplest criterion for the Bingham plastic liquid is that the calculated dynamic yield point should be of the same magnitude as the measured gel strengths. For the oil-emulsion drilling fluid illustrated in Fig. 1, a value of 4 lb/100 ft2 was obtained for gel strengths measured

By Joklik, G. F.

Most publicity about the copper industry nowadays is focused on the adequacy of ore reserves and on excessive mining capacity. These concerns, stemming from public awareness of actual and potential shortages and oversupplies, relate to production rather than consumption. Perhaps the reason for this one-sided view is that copper is thought of as a commodity which is conspicuously traded in world markets, rather than as one of many industrial materials that serve today's rapidly changing technology. Copper differs from other widely traded commodities in that its real cost of production has progressively increased since World War 11. The reasons for the increase are identifiable by analyzing operations in one of the world's large producing centres, the copper province of Arizona. Another respect in which copper differs from some other commodities is that increases in demand occur less automatically in the case of copper than they tend to in commodities whose consumption is more directly related to population growth. The copper industry's current inability to generate and attract needed investment capital is attributable to these differences between copper and other commodities; it suggests that the concept of copper purely as a commodity is outdated. The key to the problem is better integration between the activities of copper producers and users. Depending on circumstances, integration takes various forms- for example, investment tied to long-term sales con- tracts between producers in developing countries and consumers overseas; common ownership of producing and manufacturing facilities in industrialized nations like the U.S.; and consumer-oriented research and marketing by the copper producers.

Jan 1, 1978

By MARSHALL D. DRAPER

THERE are said to be about 150 operating companies in Kotchiu, most of these being small, corresponding in degree to lessees in western mines in the United States. Of the total number there are probably forty large companies having their own smelting plants equipped with one or two furnaces, slag crushing plant and other accessory equipment. A few plants, not more than ten, do custom smelting. There are in all about fifty smelting plants in Kotchiu. With little variation, the equipment and methods are the same. The plant usually consists of two furnaces, one being in operation while the other is being relined 01- re- paired. An adjoining house contains one or more of the large buffalo-drawn Chilean mills for crushing slag. A few houses for the working coolies, with more pretentious ones for the owners, complete the establishment, the whole being surrounded by a compound wall 8 ft. high.

Jan 1, 1931

By AIME AIME

THE following paragraphs, constituting the concluding portion of the Annual Report of the Council for 1903, have been withheld from publication until now, in order to make them as accurate and complete as possible. They will be published in Volume XXXV. of the Transactions in their proper place at the end of the said Annual Report. Franklin Ballou was born in Pittsburg, Pa., May 29, 1845. He was the son of an old resident, Arthur Ballou, a manufacturer and wholesale dealer in vinegar. In early youth Franklin attended the Western University of Pittsburg, but left school at the age of 16 to become book-keeper for his father, upon whose retirement from business, in 1868, he associated himself with Walter C. Childs, of Pittsburg, in the manufac¬ture of furnace-grates and asbestos-cement for blast-furnaces. This firm was known as W. C. Childs & Co., and did a success¬ful business for several years. In 1869 Mr. Ballou married Miss May S. Wilson, daughter of Judge Wilson, of Lewistown, Pa. In 1876 he spent several months traveling in the West and studying the mining industry, which greatly interested him. In consequence of this journey, he wound up his business in Pittsburg and removed in 1877 to Georgetown, Colo., where for several years he conducted a sampling-works, and built up an extensive business as an agent for the sale of ores, besides engaging to some extent in mining enterprises. , It is said that he controlled at one time about one-eighth of the output of the Leadville mines. In the early 80's, he became Vice-President and General Manager of the Bimetallic Smelter at Leadville, of which Mr. David H. Moflat was the principal owner. This was practically the first successful demonstration of pyritic smelting in Colorado. Upon the sale of the works in 1897 to the American Smelting and Refining Co., Mr. Ballou retired

Jan 1, 1905

||Abad, Leopoldo F., Min Engr, Div of Mines, Bureau of Science Manila, P I '23 Abadilla, Quirico A, Geol, Lago Pet Corp Box 172, Maracaibo, Venezuela '20 ||Abbey, Robert Graham, The W W Sly Mfg Co Train Ave, Cleveland, Ohio '21 Abbott, A. N., Mines Supt, Mazapil Copper Co, Ltd Concepcion del Oro, Mexico '23 Abbott, Clarence E., Mgr, Mines & Quarries, Tenn Coal, Iron & R R Co, 1242 Brown Marx Bldg, Birmingham, Ala. '04 Abbott, Louis Benjamin, Chief Engr , Consolidation Coal Co , Elkhorn Div Jenkins, Ky. '16 Abbott, Robert R., Met Engr , Peerless Motor Car Co Cleveland, Ohio '12 ||Abbott, Wells Osborn, Ray Consolidated Copper Co Hayden, Ariz. '23 Abeel, George H, Jr., Cons Min Engr 4612 West 17th St , Los Angeles, Cal '18 Abel, Albert E., Asst to Pres, Valley Mould & Iron Corp Sharpsville, Pa. '19 Abernathy, George Elmer, Prof of Geol & Min , Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kans. '20 Abey, Hiroshi, Min & Met Engr, Min & Met Dept, The Higher Technical School, Osaka, Japan. '17 ||d'Ablaing, Philip R, Chem , Anaconda Copper Min Co Great Falls, Mont '25 Aborn, Robert H , Research Assoc., Mass Inst of Tech Cambridge, Mass '19 Abouchar, Sylvain Sley, Min. Engi & Geol , care of S H Sekaly, 13 Rue El Nimr, Cairo, Egypt '17

Jan 1, 1923

By AIME AIME

LOCAL COMMITTEES. GENERAL RECEPTION COMMITTEE.-Mr. and Mrs. H. S. Chamberlain, Mr. and Mrs. J. T. Lupton, Mr. and Mrs. T. H Lasley, Mr. and Mrs. R. S. Faxon, Mr. and Mrs. H. Clay Evans, Mr. and Mrs. C. E. James, Mr. and Mrs. B. F. Thomas, Air. and Mrs. H. S. Probasco, Mr. and Mrs. W. M. Lasley, Mr. and Mrs. L. W. Llewellyn, Mr. and Airs. T. G. Montague, Mr. and Mrs. E. B. Thomasson, Mr. and Mrs. C. F. Milburn, Mr. and Mrs. C. A. Raht, Mr. and Mrs. C. C. Notting¬ham, Mr. and Airs. Z. C. Patten, Mr. and Mrs. Willard Warner, Mr. and Mrs. S. R. Read, Mr. and Mrs. Carl White, Mr. and Mrs. M. M. Allison, Air. and Mrs. C. E. Buck, Mr. and Airs. H. F. Temple, Air. and Mrs. M. M. Hedges, Mr. and Airs. X. Wheeler, Mr. and Airs. John A. Patten, Air. and Airs. N. T. Montague, Mr. and Mrs. R. H. Williams, Mr. and Mrs. T. R. Preston, Mr. and Airs. Morrow Chamberlain, Mr. and Airs. T. C. Thompson, Mr. and Airs. T. L. Montague, Mr. and Mrs. O. L. Hurlbut, Air. and Mrs. C. A. Lyerly, Mr. and Mrs. Garnett Andrews, Air. and Mrs. M. B. Ochs, Mr. and Airs. Webster James, Mr. and Mrs. D. P. Montague, Mr. and Mrs. Z. C. Patten, Jr., Mr. and Mrs. W. A. Sadd, Mr. and Mrs. J. B. Pound, Air. and Mrs. George D. Lancaster, Air. and Airs. J. F. Johnston, Mr. and Mrs. R. W. Barr, Air. acrd Mrs. W. B. Davis, Mr. and Airs. Douglas Baxter, Air. and Mrs. W. R. Crabtree, Mr. and Mrs. Lewis M. Coleman, Mr. and Mrs. Newell Sanders, Mr. and Mrs. E. Y. Chapin, Mr. and Mrs. W: B. Riddell,. Mr. and Mrs. J. B. Frazier, Mr. and Mrs. John A. Moon, Mr. and Mrs. C. D. Mitchell, Dr. and Airs. J. H. Race, Mr. and Airs. A. W. Chambliss, Mr. and Mrs. J. P. Smartt, Mr. and Mrs. J. F. Tarwater, Mr. and Mrs. L. D. Drewry, Capt. and Mrs. A. B. Putnam, Mrs. Minnie C. Ewing, Mr. G. F. Meehan, Mr. Sam S. Gerstle, Mr. P. A. Brawner, Mr. C. M. Preston, Air. George M. Guild, Mr. L. M. Mansfield, Dr. J. W. Johnson, Dr. J. AI. Hogshead. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.-H. S. Chamberlain, Chairman; H. S. Probasco, C. M. Preston, H. Clay Evans, J. T. Lupton, M. B. Ochs, C. C. Nottingham, Al. Al. Alli¬son, R. S. Faxon, C. E. James, C. A. Raht. EXCURSION TO CHICKAMAUGA PARK.-T. C. Thompson, Chairman; B. F. Thomas, G. F. Meehan, Morrow Chamberlain, W. J. Bass, J. K. McGoodwin. EXCURSION TO HALES BAR LOCK AND DAM.-R. H. Williams, Chairman; John A. Patten, Newell Sanders, George M. Guild, Capt. A. B. Putnam. EXCURSION TO ROCK-WOOD.-F. H. Clymer, Chairman; T. L. Brown, T. A. Wright, J. P. Tarwater, T. L. Peterman. INSTITUTE HEADQUARTERS.-The Hotel Patten. THE first session, held Thursday evening, Oct. 1, in the Banquet Hall of the Hotel Patten, was called to order by Capt. H. S. Chamberlain, Chairman of the Local Committee, who, in behalf of the city of Chattanooga, extended a hearty welcome to the members and guests of the Institute.

Nov 1, 1908

THOSE NOT MARKED ARE MEMBERS; MARKED THUS ? ARE ASSOCIATES. HEAVY-FACED TYPE SIGNIFIES HONORARY MEMBERSHIP. JUNIOR ASSOCIATES ARE MARKED II. THE FIGURES AT THE END OF THE ADDRESS INDICATE THE YEAR OF ELECTION. ?AARONSON, ALFRED E Pres., Tuloma Oil Co., Unity Bldg., Tulsa, Okla. '18 ABADIE, EMILE R., Min. Engr Box 291, Porterville, Tulare Co., Cal. '76 ABBOTT, CLARENCE E., Gen'l Supt., Iron Mines Div., Tenn. Coal, Iron & R. R. Co. 1405 Minnesota Ave., Bessemer, Ala. '04 ABBOTT, LOUIS BENJAMIN, Chief Engr., Consolidation Coal Co., Elkhorn Div. Jenkins, Ky. 115 ABBOTT, ROBERT R. Met. Engr., Peerless Motor Car Co., Cleveland, Ohio. '12 ABE, ASAKA Fujitagumi Taiwan Office, Taipeh Formosa, Japan. '14 ABEEL, GEORGE H., JR., Cons. Min. Engr., 4111 Lafayette Ave., St. Louis, Mo. '18 ABEY, HIROSHI, Min. & Met. Engr., Arakawa Mine, Mitsubishi Co., Senpoku-gun, Akitaken, Japan. '17 ||ABOUCHAR, S. S., Cia. de Minerales y Metales, S. A. Santa Eulalia Unit, Apt. 70, Chihuahua, Chih., Mexico. '17 ABRAHAMS, A. I 1391 Madison Ave., New York N. Y. '14 ?ACKER, E. O'C., Met., 128 East Washington Lane, Germatown Philadelphia, Pa. '86 ACKER, WILLIAM L., Diamond Drill Contractor... Mears Bldg., Scranton, Pa. '18 ?ACKERMAN, ERNEST R., Pres., Lawrence Portland Cement Co. Plainfield, anion Co.. N. J. '15

Jan 1, 1923

By Milton H. Fies

Although pig iron from iron ore and red cedar charcoal preceded the mining of coal by many years, for tradition says that Alabama iron was used to shoe the horses of Andrew Jackson's soldiers, coal was not produced until 1830. In that year, coal was mined in Tuscaloosa County, in the vicinity of what is now the University of Alabama, and shipped on flat boats (obviously during the wet season, for there were many shoals) down the Warrior River to Mobile. About that time, the first railroad, the Decatur & Tecumseh, was being constructed in northern Alabama to overcome the obstructions to freight traffic caused by the now well-known Muscle Shoals in the Tennessee River. This railroad was patterned after a railroad at Mauch Chunk, Pa., which was used for hauling anthracite from the Panther Creek valley. The Alabama railroad, which required about four years to complete, was 46 miles long and was used solely for the transportation of cotton. Although it was a failure, it demonstrated the practicability of the undertaking, and the succeeding railroads, which were begun in 1834, 1848, 1852, and 1853, added immeasurably to the development of the coal resources of the state. Between the years 1830 and 1860, practically all the coal mined in the state was dug from the outcrop near the river or from the river beds, and shipped by boat to Mobile. Transporting coal down the Warrior River was an undertaking of great risk, required much skill, and frequently had heavy losses. It is recorded that this coal was sold to the gas company in Mobile in 1844; it was most likely mined from the Black Creek Seam. In 1914, on the completion of Lock 17, the Warrior River became a navigable stream from 9 miles above Cordova, Ala., to Mobile and offers a great opportunity for the future development of the coal resources of the state. Coke for foundry use was first made in Alabama in 1855. It was 21 years later, however, in 1876, that pig iron was made from Alabama ore with Alabama coal.

Jan 1, 1925

By Charles H. Behre

KEYNOTE of the mining geology sessions was the preparation for an extensive war with all that this implies as to the need for strategic minerals, both metallic and nonmetallic. Nevertheless the sessions also included many papers of less urgent, more theoretical interest. The stress of wartime production had the effect of giving an unusually full and rich program, the longest in recent years, with sessions continuing virtually throughout the meeting. Some papers dealt with geophysical prospecting as applied to mining geology; others were concerned with the grand strategy of mineral reserves and thus involved the industrial minerals; such "borderline" subjects were presented before sessions held jointly with the Geophysics Committee or the Industrial Minerals Division.

Jan 1, 1942

By AIME AIME

A REQUEST for information as to the details of activities of the Engineering Council was made by the Joint Conference Committee for the benefit of the new American Engineering Council. , This request was complied with, and the scheduled reply so succinctly sets forth the activities of the old Council as well as the scope of possible activities of ,the new Council, about whose efforts there has been much discussion, .that it' is given herewith in full, except the 'budget which is summarized.

Jan 1, 1920

By Raymond D. Sloan

Retaining third place in crude-oil production among the nation's oil-producing states, Oklahoma's output in 1942 totaled 137,792,000 bbl., a decline of 9.4 per cent from the previous year's total of 152,117,000 bbl. Production declined from an average of 403,000 bbl. daily in January 1942 to an average of 355,000 bbl. during December, a reduction of 48,000 bbl. daily (11.9 per cent) during the year. At the end of 1942 it would appear inevitable that the downward trend in production will continue in 1953 unless halted in the immediate future by greater than normal discoveries and development. To Jan. I, 1943, Oklahoma has produced 5,067,013,000 bbl. oil crude oil. Development and Exploration Development dropped abruptly in 1942, reflecting the lack of any sizable discoveries and the effect of the provisions of Federal Well Spacing Order M-68, which became effective in December 1941. In all, 1210 wells were drilled in 1942. This represents a decrease of 42.7 per cent from the 1941 total of 2110. Of the total wells completed, 553 (45.7 per cent) were oil wells with an average initial production of 443 bbl.; 102 (8.4 per cent) were gas wells with an average initial of 3,359,000 cu. ft.; and 555 (45.9 per cent) were dry. Although the number of completions declined sharply, the total of 320 wildcats completed (26.4 per cent of all wells) repre-sents a decrease of only 2.7 per cent from the previous year's figure of 329. Of the wildcats drilled, 44 (13.8 per cent) were oil wells, 13 (4.0 per cent) were gas wells, and 263 (82.2 per cent) were recorded as failures. Reconditioning of wells throughout the state resulted in a total recompletion of 355 wells. Of these, 234 were oil wells with a combined initial production of 96,808 bbl., 32 were gas wells with a total initial of 381,488,000 cu. ft., and 89 were abandoned. None of the 26 pools found in 1942 has developed into a major discovery. The Pauls Valley pool, Garvin County, is the most outstanding. Since its discovery in April, 14 wells with an average initial of 1898 bbl. have produced 803,000 bbl. of 42' gravity oil from the Bromide zone. Development in this pool is believed to be almost completed. Other of the more important discoveries are the East Watchorn pool, Pawnee County; Guthrie Townsite and West Navina, Logan County; Brooksville and Macomb, Pottawatomie County, and the Liberty and Northeast Lucien discoveries in Noble county. The East Watchorn pool, at the close of the year, had 14 completed oil wells with an average initial of 989 bbl. from the Wilcox sand at 3930 it.; Guthrie Townsite, one well with an initial of 840 bbl. from dolomite at 5600 It.; West Navina, six wells with an average initial of 284 bbl. in the Lay ton sand at 5050 ft., Brooksville, eight wells in the Hunton at 4800 ft. with an average initial 01 355 bbl.; Macomb, one well with an initial of 160 bbl. in the IIunton at 4700 ft.; the Liberty pool, one well with an initial of 1268 bbl. in the second Wilcox at 4500 ft., and two wells in the Tonkawa sand at 2500 ft., with an average initial of 230 bbl. In the Northeast Lucien pool, four wells were completed in the Wilcox at 5380 ft. for an average initial of 1164 bbl., and one well was completed in the Viola lime at 5255 ft. for an initial of 55 barrels.

Jan 1, 1943

By Raymond D. Sloan

Retaining third place in crude-oil production among the nation's oil-producing states, Oklahoma's output in 1942 totaled 137,792,000 bbl., a decline of 9.4 per cent from the previous year's total of 152,117,000 bbl. Production declined from an average of 403,000 bbl. daily in January 1942 to an average of 355,000 bbl. during December, a reduction of 48,000 bbl. daily (11.9 per cent) during the year. At the end of 1942 it would appear inevitable that the downward trend in production will continue in 1953 unless halted in the immediate future by greater than normal discoveries and development. To Jan. I, 1943, Oklahoma has produced 5,067,013,000 bbl. oil crude oil. Development and Exploration Development dropped abruptly in 1942, reflecting the lack of any sizable discoveries and the effect of the provisions of Federal Well Spacing Order M-68, which became effective in December 1941. In all, 1210 wells were drilled in 1942. This represents a decrease of 42.7 per cent from the 1941 total of 2110. Of the total wells completed, 553 (45.7 per cent) were oil wells with an average initial production of 443 bbl.; 102 (8.4 per cent) were gas wells with an average initial of 3,359,000 cu. ft.; and 555 (45.9 per cent) were dry. Although the number of completions declined sharply, the total of 320 wildcats completed (26.4 per cent of all wells) repre-sents a decrease of only 2.7 per cent from the previous year's figure of 329. Of the wildcats drilled, 44 (13.8 per cent) were oil wells, 13 (4.0 per cent) were gas wells, and 263 (82.2 per cent) were recorded as failures. Reconditioning of wells throughout the state resulted in a total recompletion of 355 wells. Of these, 234 were oil wells with a combined initial production of 96,808 bbl., 32 were gas wells with a total initial of 381,488,000 cu. ft., and 89 were abandoned. None of the 26 pools found in 1942 has developed into a major discovery. The Pauls Valley pool, Garvin County, is the most outstanding. Since its discovery in April, 14 wells with an average initial of 1898 bbl. have produced 803,000 bbl. of 42' gravity oil from the Bromide zone. Development in this pool is believed to be almost completed. Other of the more important discoveries are the East Watchorn pool, Pawnee County; Guthrie Townsite and West Navina, Logan County; Brooksville and Macomb, Pottawatomie County, and the Liberty and Northeast Lucien discoveries in Noble county. The East Watchorn pool, at the close of the year, had 14 completed oil wells with an average initial of 989 bbl. from the Wilcox sand at 3930 it.; Guthrie Townsite, one well with an initial of 840 bbl. from dolomite at 5600 It.; West Navina, six wells with an average initial of 284 bbl. in the Lay ton sand at 5050 ft., Brooksville, eight wells in the Hunton at 4800 ft. with an average initial 01 355 bbl.; Macomb, one well with an initial of 160 bbl. in the IIunton at 4700 ft.; the Liberty pool, one well with an initial of 1268 bbl. in the second Wilcox at 4500 ft., and two wells in the Tonkawa sand at 2500 ft., with an average initial of 230 bbl. In the Northeast Lucien pool, four wells were completed in the Wilcox at 5380 ft. for an average initial of 1164 bbl., and one well was completed in the Viola lime at 5255 ft. for an initial of 55 barrels.

Jan 1, 1943

By L. S. Darken

IT has been known for sometime that in an ionic lattice, such as that of Ag2S or FeO, the migration velocity of the anion may differ markedly from that of the cation, the cation being usually the more mobile. It has been shown, for example, that during the formation of silver sulfide tarnish on silver, the tarnish layer grows principally by the motion of silver cations through an essentially stationary silver sulfide lattice. Similarly, the growth of wüstite scale on iron proceeds principally by motion of iron ions, this being accomplished with the aid of vacant iron lattice sites into which the iron may readily move. Likewise investigations of solid solutions of various salts show that there is usually considerable difference in the mobility of the different cations. Measurements of the mobility of various metals in liquid mercury indicate that the various metals move at different rates relative to the mercury. In view of the foregoing it seems reasonable to suppose that when any single phase solution is acted upon by a field, the atoms of different elements respond in different ways; in particular, that the force arising from a particular concentration gradient in a binary alloy would cause the atoms of one component to move with a drift velocity which is in general different from that of the atoms of the other component. The recent experiments of Smigelskas and Kirkendall1 support this viewpoint, since they found, in essence, that during diffusion in alpha brass zinc moves appreciably faster than copper. This was evidenced by the relative motion of inert molybdenum wires. Such a phenomenon is incompatible with the place interchange theory of diffusion proposed by several authors, most recently by Birchenall and Mehl.2 This theory has, however, also been questioned3.4 for other reasons, principally because of the high energy required for direct atomic interchange. The rather large difference between self-diffusivity, as determined by tracer technique, and mutual diffusivity, as determined with the aid of another element at low concentration, might also be interpreted as favoring the above idea; however, Birchenall and Mehl have pointed out that there is another possible interpretation of this difference; this is discussed later. A rather interesting and pertinent observation was made by Schwartz,5 who noticed that tungsten lamp filaments, heated by direct current, commonly fail by necking down in the region at the temperature gradient near the positive end, with a concomitant swelling at the corresponding position near the negative end. He introduces considerable auxiliary evidence to show that this phenomenon is occasioned by the motion of tungsten cations which migrate in the high temperature region from the positive end toward the negative end. The mechanism of this migration is not clearly understood. If, however, this experimental evidence be accepted, we are forced to conclude that alloying elements in the tungsten may migrate by the same or a similar mechanism, whatever it may be, at a greater or lesser rate, thus giving rise

Jan 1, 1948

By A. B. Kinzel

ALTHOUGH the iron-carbon diagram has undergone many changes in the last 20 years, the region below the eutectoid line and up to approxi-mately 1.7 per cent carbon has been little affected. This region is generally considered to consist of cementite and ferrite. Graphite has been noted occasionally in the hypereutectoid steel region, and the ready formation of graphite nodules in malleable cast iron is a phenomenon difficult to interpret in the light of cementite, supposedly stable at sub-eutectoid temperatures. In this case the graphite formation has been partly explained by the presence of silicon, and many have believed that silicon acts to change the stable state rather than to accelerate reactions so as to arrive at the stable state in a briefer period of time. Consider-ation of this phenomenon indicates that cementite is not the stable phase in the temperature composition zone referred to. In the course of examining a low-carbon steel tube taken from a petroleum cracking still, which had been in service for approximately three years at temperatures somewhat below the eutectoid temperature, observations were made that shed light on this entire subject. The tube in question analyzed:1 C, 0.15 per cent; Mn, 0.49; Si, 0.02; S, 0.023; P, 0.015. The microstructure of the tube after service is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. From these it is evident that cementite as such is absent, and that in its place nodular graphite has been formed. In order to check this observation further, samples taken from the tube were heated at 850° C. for varying periods of time. The small samples were put into a large hot furnace, and the total time is recorded. The structure of the

Jan 1, 1934

By Scott, Turner

MY whole life has been spent in the mining business, PO I naturally tend to address my remarks particularly to the newly-graduated mining and metallurgical engineers among you. To a certain extent, all forms of engineering principles are involved in the training of the mining engineer, and most sorts of engineering are certainly utilized by him, so every one of this graduatins class is concerned with the field I propose to discuss.

Jan 1, 1932