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By R. J. Brown

Design of a submarine pipeline system is governed by many factors, one of which is the effect of transverse horizontal currents on the pipeline structure itself Although this feature alone can be of utmost importance to the life span and stability of the underwater pipeline, it is usually the least recognized, with these hydro-dynamic forces being either completely overlooked or grossly underestimated. In an attempt to supply the methods and means for stabilization of sub-marine pipelines, much capital has been spent by pipeline companies. Design criteria incorporated by these organizations extend over a broad spectrum of engineering with bases varying from pure theory to cut and dry methods. A history of numerous failures has substantiated the postulate that many of these submarine pipelines have been underdesigned from the stability standpoint. By the same token, equally as many have been excessively overdesigned with resultant excess expenditures. An attempt has been made in this paper to establish the magnitudes of these hydrodynamic forces by measuring the lateral current-induced differential pressure distribution around the periphery of the submarine pipeline. INTRODUCTION The expenditure of money for research by corporations obviously requires beneficial results to justify the investment. One of the functions of the engineer is first to make the problem known and then to provide a means of solution at the least possible cost. The initial procedure is to investigate all pertinent published technical articles on the subject to determine if this problem has been previously solved. If resolution of this problem is not obtainable, the next course of action is to evaluate through experiments these forces and their magnitudes. On the specific subject of drag and lift, the accumulation of data is provided from three separate and distinct sources: from experience, from theoreticians and through experimental observations. The experience source has proved costly with money wasted either because of underdesign and failure or excessive expenditures for overdesign, and has not been sufficient to form a definite conclusion on these hydrodynamic forces. The pure theoretician is often not completely cognizant of the situation and his works bear little adaptation to the real problem. The experimentalist has his own problems with regard to obtaining results from small-scaled models and successfully adapting them to the larger prototypes. Each method has its own advocates who diligently adhere to their own separate routes as being the only means of resolving this problem. However, a review of the various methods of analysis leads one to the conclusion that if the advantages of all three are combined, a reasonable solution to this problem can be reached. Briefly then, the problem is to obtain the magnitudes of the forces on the submarine pipeline subjected to a lateral current by investigations of previous design considerations, by a study of existing theoretica1 data and by appropriate experimentation. This paper deals mainly with obtaining experimental data and the interweaving of theoretical and experience factors for resolution of these forces. APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE These tests were performed in 1961 at Collins Construction Co.'s main office near Port Lavaca, Tex. Test equipment consisted of a steel tank 3 ft high by 4 ft wide by 40 ft long, with several pumps circulating the water through the tank via suction lines from the downstream portion of the tank and discharging from the pumps directly into the upstream end of the tank. For reduction of turbulence, a wire section was constmcted in the upstream portion and straightening vanes in the form of pipes, screens, etc., were used to reduce the vortex and eddy action in the tank (Fig. 1). A venturi was built at the test specimen for obtaining velocity sufficient to simulate actual conditions. This full-scale test was initiated to eliminate the error introduced in modeling and obtain a truer picture of forces actually encountered. Six- and 10-in. specimens were prepared by

Jan 1, 1967

By B. Russell, J. R. Tuffley

The stability regions of the normal sulfate and the various basic sulfates of lead in 02-SO2 and PhS-SO2 gas atmospheres were calculated from available thermodynamic data over the temperature range 600o to 1200oC. Roasting experiments were carried out on samples of synthetic lead sulfide at various temperatures and for various roasting times. Compounds in the oxidized surface layers were identified by X-my techniques. The order in which the various reactions occurred was determined by considering the experimental results in conjunction with the thermodynamic calculations. The results of these investigations were applied to the sintering of lead sulfide concentrates, and the extent to which each of the various reactions occurred in a sinter bed was determined. PRODUCTS which may be formed during the roasting of PbS are PbS04, PbSO4. PbO, PbSO4 . 2PbO, PbSO4 . 4PbO, PbO, and Pb.1, 2 The formation of some sulfates has been studied by a number of investigators3-' whose experiments have mostly been confined to the temperature range between 500" and 850°C. Culver, Gray, and spooner3 were able to isolate the reactions which formed PbSO4 and PbSO4. PbO by carefully controlling the compositions of the roasting gases. The kinetics of these reactions were studied within the temperature range 673" to 807°C. Gardner4 and Merrick5 also studied the kinetics of oxidation of PbS. Gardner disregarded the existence of basic sulfates and, as a result, misinterpreted some of his experimental data. Merrick recognized that most of the products of oxidation were mixtures of basic sulfates, but was unable to identify the individual components. Hoschek6 oxidized PbS in air at temperatures up to 800°C. The products were analyzed after roasting had proceeded for some minutes, but no attempt was made to follow the reactions in the initial stages. Consequently, no roasting mechanism was derived. He also showed that PbSO4 and PbSO4 - 4PbO decomposed slowly in air at temperatures in the region of 800°C. The stability regions of sulfates in the temperature range 500" to 850°C have been only partially determined, while practically no information is available for higher temperatures. In the lead sintering process, PbS concentrates are roasted at temperatures within the range 1000o to 1200°C. In order to investigate sulfate formation, it is necessary to determine the effects of temperature and gas composition upon the various oxidation reactions and upon the regions of stability of the various lead sulfates. Kellogg and Basu2 introduced an equilibrium diagram similar to those in Figs. 1 to 3 which provides a convenient medium for represent-

Jan 1, 1964

By H. H. Klepfer, K. J. Gill, P. Chiotti

SOME observations relative to the U-Zn system have been made by other investigators. Chipman1 and Carter2 have reported the preparation of several U-Zn alloys and point out that these alloys are generally difficult to prepare. Chipman1 reported evidence for a high melting compound at about 90 atomic pct Zn and the possible existence of a eutec-tic between the compound and uranium. Raynor," in a theoretical discussion of the alloying properties of uranium, included zinc among the elements predicted to have little or no solubility in a, p, or y uranium. In the present investigation, thermal analyses, X-ray, metallographic, and vapor-pressure data were obtained to determine the phase boundaries. The relatively high zinc pressure over most of the alloys at temperatures of 900 °C and above proved troublesome and special techniques had to be employed in preparing suitable alloys. Materials and Preparation of Alloys The metals employed in this investigation were Ames Laboratory biscuit uranium containing less than 500 ppm total impurities and Bunker Hill slab zinc or Baker Analyzed reagent granulated zinc, both with a purity of 99.99+ pct. Due to the high vapor pressure of zinc and the high reactivity of both uranium and zinc with oxygen at only moderately high temperatures, alloys were prepared in closed containers which had either been evacuated or evacuated and filled with helium. High purity magnesia, magnesia containing 10 pct calcium fluoride, and tantalum proved to be suitable crucible materials. Tw-o different procedures, described below, were used to prepare alloys, the latter being the most satisfactory. The metals, uranium turnings and granulated zinc, were cleaned with dilute nitric acid, rinsed, dried, and placed immediately in a helium-fill'ed dry box. The two metals were placed' in a 10 mil Ta crucible. The charge was enclosed in the tantalum crucible by welding on a preformed tantalum cap. This assembly was enclosed inside a stainless steel (AISI 309) bomb. The bomb was made by welding a piece of stainless steel plate on each end of a stainless steel pipe. All these operations were carried out in a helium atmosphere. These assemblies were heated in a muffle furnace at temperatures between 1100" and 1200°C for 10 to 15 min or held as long as 15 to 20 hr in the 950" to 1000°C temperature range before quenching. Spectrographic and chemical analyses showed no tantalum pickup by the alloys, indicating no reaction between the alloys and the crucibles. However, some of these crucibles failed, probably due to imperfections in the welds of the stainless steel or tantalum crucibles. The second and most satisfactory method was to prepare the alloys by powder metallurgy techniques. The procedure was to press degreased and acid-etched uranium turnings with granulated zinc into 20 g compacts under 20,000-psi pressure. The compacts were placed in MgO crucibles, and sealed in evacuated Vycor or fused silica tubes. The alloys were then heated as long as two weeks at about 550°C in a muffle furnace. The pressed compacts were observed to expand by several volume percent during heating and it was necessary to make allowances for this expansion in order to avoid breaking the crucible and Vycor tube. This method was found very satisfactory for preparing alloys which were suitable for thermal analysis or vapor pressure studies. Experimental Methods and Results The phase diagram for the U-Zn system at 1 atrn pressure, shown in Fig. 1, is based primarily on vapor pressure measurements and on thermal analysis taken at temperatures below 950°C. Fig. 2 shows the U-Zn diagram at 5 atrn pressure, constructed on the basis of thermal analysis of alloys in sealed containers up to 1150°C and on the basis of metallographic, X-ray, and analytical data. The alloys sealed under vacuum were actually under their own vapor pressure and those sealed in an atmosphere of helium were under an additional pressure due to the helium. At temperatures up to 1100°C the zinc pressure is 5 atrn or less for these alloys; consequently the maximum pressure over the alloys sealed under a helium atmosphere was 10 atrn or less at temperatures up to 1100°C. Changes in pressure of this order of magnitude do not appreciably alter the position of most solid-solid or liquid-solid phase boundaries. In constructing the phase diagram for a pressure of 5 atm, the effect of pressure on all phase boundaries except those for liquid-vapor or solid-vapor regions was considered negligible.

Jan 1, 1958

By J. H. Klepinger, C. W. Goodale

I. Introduction....................567 II. Character oF the OrE................568 III. Old FluE System..................572 IV. Tests on Old FLUE System..............575 1. Aspiration Tests................. 575 2. Tests with Steel Settling Chamber........... 575 3. Test with Experimental Brick Flue........... 583 4. Testa on Blast Furnace Geses............. 591 V. Design of New FluE System.............. 597 VI. Main Dust Chamber................. 605 VII. Some DetailS of Construction ............. 609 VIII. THE Chimney.................... 616 IX. Operation of New FluE System............. 624 X. Temperatures and DraFTS............... 630 XI. Velocities and Volumes................ 632 XII. TeStS on the New FluE System............. 637 XIII. Conclusion..................... 643 I. Introduction. In the summer of 1909 the Boston & Montana reduction department of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. completed a new flue system, at a cost of about $1,100,000, and as this includes the largest and highest chimney in the world, and some new features of flue construction, a description will be of interest. At the Spokane meeting of the Institute in September, 1909, a brief mention was made of this flue system, in discussing Mr. Brunton's presidential paper on the Progress of Metallurgy in the West, and a promise was given that when a long enough time had elapsed, so that operating results could be given, a paper would be offered. The smelting plant includes blast furnaces, MacDougall roasters, gas-fired reverberatories, and converters.

Jan 1, 1914

By A. R. Gregory, A. L. Podio, K. E. Gray

Dynamic elastic properties of dry and water-saturated Green River shale samples were computed from compressional- and shear-wave velocity measurements. P- and 5-wave velocity measurements were made in three mutually perpendicular directions with respect to the bedding planes. Measurements were also made in several different directions by varying the angle between the bedding planes and the direction of propagation of the wave for angles of 0, 30, 45, 60 and 909 The oriented samples were subjected to both confining pressure and axial loads, in excess of the confining stress, in the direction of propagation. In general, P- and S-wave velocities increased with increasing stress levels, with a corresponding increase in Young's modulus. Water saturation caused the P-wave velocity to increase and the S-wave velocity to decrease. Elastic moduli decreased upon saturation, except for Pois son's ratio, which increased, indicating some degree of weakening of the material. The samples showed a moderate degree of anisotropy; this was to be expected from the laminated nature and shallow occurrence of Green River shale. INTRODUCTION This paper presents some results of an experimental determination of the elastic coefficients of anisotropic materials (in particular, finely layered rocks and minerals such as Green River shale) from measurements of dilatational and shear-ultrasonic-wave velocities. Ultrasonic techniques have been used extensively in nondestructive testing. Several methods have been proposed by Mcskimmin, 1 and some of these have been used successfully to measure ultrasonic velocities in rocks. Hughes and Cross, 2 Wyllie et al., 3 and Birch 4,5 developed pulse first-arrival techniques for the measurement of dilatational and shear velocities. Williams and Lamb 6 used the method of cancellation of a traveling wave, which was later modified by Myers et al.' and perfected by McSkimmin. 8 Although this method is highly accurate, it has not been used as widely as the pulse-transmission methods recently reported by Jamieson and Hoskins 9 King,10 and Mattaboni and Schreiber. 11 It has been common practice to use some form of crystal transducers, either quartz or ceramic, that has been cut or polarized in different directions in order to generate either compressional or shear waves. However, accurate determination of shear wave velocities has been difficult due to problems that arise in obtaining a pure shear wave from cross-polarized crystals, which usually also generate a small amount of compressional energy. As reported by Gregory, 12 this energy can be seen as a long precursor preceding the sharp break of the shear first arrival. The need for generating pure shear waves led to interest in mode-conversion techniques, which are based upon conversion of the mode of vibration through wave reflection or refraction at a discontinuity. Arenberg13 showed that for certain materials and for certain angles of incidence it is possible to generate pure shear modes by reflection at a boundary. Jamieson and Hoskins 9 used a pyrex glass-air interface for generating pure shear waves, and King 10 used this method successfully for measuring shear-wave velocities in rocks. Gregory l4 arrived at a similar result by refraction of a wave at an aluminum-oil interface. A plane compressional wave, traveling in the oil phase, is incident on the aluminum at an angle larger than the critical angle for compressional waves, and thereby generates a purely transverse, plane-polarized wave in the aluminum. During the last few years methods have been developed that allow the simultaneous determination of shear and compressional velocities in solids.

Jan 1, 1969

By George R. Ensminger, E. Heaton Hemingway

During the past year, the Watertown Arsenal has been interested in the occluded gas and oxide content of certain ordnance steels in order to determine, if possible, whether some of the peculiar failures in their physical properties might not be traced to these causes. For the purpose of best accomplishing a study of this nature, it was decided to heat the various samples of steel in a vacuum for definite periods of time at high temperatures and carefully examine the quantity and composition of the gases evolved. By the use of a fused quartz tube fitted with a water-cooled, ground-glass stopper, it was possible to maintain a vacuum at a temperature of 1000" C. for 10 hr. without perceptible leakage being evidenced as measured by a McLeod gage. The silica tube was connected with an evacuating system so constructed that the volatilized gases could be removed from time to time and a low vacuum of 0.0002 to 0.0010 mm. of mercury continuously maintained. At no time during the period of heating or in the removal of the gases did the evacuated system come in contact with rubber stoppers or any rubber connections, making contamination from such a source, impossible. In other words, the only volatile products that could be: obtained must necessarily have come from the steel itself or from the glass and fused quartz system or from the mercury used as a sealing agent. In the carlier experiments, the steel treated was in the form of turnings, but this practice was discarded because the weight's of the turnings before and after being heated were widely inconsistent,, even when taken from the same piece of steel. This discrepancy developed largely through variation in the amount of metal volatilized with the gases; this metal could always be seen in the form of a ring where it condensed in the cooler portion of the tube in either the amorphous or crystalline condition. Because of the frequency in occurrence and the variation in the manner of deposition, this material was roughly analyzed and found to consist for the most part of iron. At the same time two samples of steel that had been

Jan 1, 1922

By E. Heaton Hemingway, George R. Ensminger

During the past year, the Watertown Arsenal has been interested in the occluded gas and oxide content of certain ordnance steels in order to determine, if possible, whether some of the peculiar failures in their physical properties might not be traced to these causes. For the purpose of best accomplishing a study of this nature, it was decided to heat the various samples of steel in a vacuum for definite periods of time at high temperatures and carefully examine the quantity and composition of the gases evolved. By the use of a fused quartz tube fitted with a water-cooled, ground-glass stopper, it was possible to maintain a vacuum at a temperature of 1000" C. for 10 hr. without perceptible leakage being evidenced as measured by a McLeod gage. The silica tube was connected with an evacuating system so constructed that the volatilized gases could be removed from time to time and a low vacuum of 0.0002 to 0.0010 mm. of mercury continuously maintained. At no time during the period of heating or in the removal of the gases did the evacuated system come in contact with rubber stoppers or any rubber connections, making contamination from such a source, impossible. In other words, the only volatile products that could be: obtained must necessarily have come from the steel itself or from the glass and fused quartz system or from the mercury used as a sealing agent. In the carlier experiments, the steel treated was in the form of turnings, but this practice was discarded because the weight's of the turnings before and after being heated were widely inconsistent,, even when taken from the same piece of steel. This discrepancy developed largely through variation in the amount of metal volatilized with the gases; this metal could always be seen in the form of a ring where it condensed in the cooler portion of the tube in either the amorphous or crystalline condition. Because of the frequency in occurrence and the variation in the manner of deposition, this material was roughly analyzed and found to consist for the most part of iron. At the same time two samples of steel that had been

Jan 1, 1922

Executive Committee, Board of Directors C E Reistle, Jr, Chairman, H DeWitt Smith, Vice-Chairman, T B Counselman, Grover Holt, A W Thornton Finance Committee, Board of Directors Andrew Fletcher, Chairman, R B Caples, C R Dodson Investments Erle V Daveler, '57, Chairman, Henry Krumb, '59, John E Warren, '57, G F Moulton, ex officio as Treasurer, Andrew Fletcher, ex officio as Chairman, Fi¬nance Committee Endowment W W Mein, Jr, Chairman, N G Alford, E V Daveler, W J Coulter, J V N Dorr, R B Gilmore, J B Haffner, 0 H Johnson, Henry Krumb, D H McLaughlin, J R McMillan, J B Morrow, L F Reinartz, Wilfred Sykes, C E Weed Honorary Memberships Andrew Fletcher, Chairman, L F Reinartz and H DeWitt Smith, ex officio as Past Presidents, C E Reistle, Jr , ex officio as President, M L Rai¬der, '60, Henry Krumb, '58, D H McLaughlin, '57, P D Merica, '59

Jan 1, 1956

By W. D. Lowry

As most of the industrial activity of Oregon is centered in the Portland area, the foundries there consume the bulk of the foundry sand produced in Oregon. Although a number of the larger towns scattered throughout the state have gray-iron foundries, the sand used by most of them is of local origin. The yearly consumption of foundry sand of all types for the past few war years in Oregon is estimated to have been approximately 40,000 tons valued at about $285,000, of which an estimated 18,000 tons was shipped in from the Ottawa, Ill., district for use largely by the steel foundries. Until 1945 much of the silica sand consumed by the steel foundries in the Pacific Northwest, approximately 50,000 tons in 1944, came from Ottawa, Ill. and surrounding regions. Although some silica sand was shipped in from Belgium in the past, none is known to have been imported in recent years. Early in 1945, a very promising high-grade silica sand being produced near Eugene, Oregon, was introduced, and all but two of the Portland steel foundries are using this new sand. Until a few years ago, the search for good local (Oregon) foundry sands was carried on largely by the foundry supply houses. Recently the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries has investigated a number of deposits and has carried on and fostered research on the most bromising deposit near Eugene, about 120 miles south of Portland. High-grade silica foundry sand from this deposit is now being marketed in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The Eugene sand is one of the very few outstanding western steel-foundry sands. Field investigations by the Oregon Department show that there are relatively few deposits of sand in Oregon suitable for foundry use. A knowledge of the geology of the state makes this readily understandable. The only major primary sources of the quartz present in sandstones in Oregon are the intrusive masses of granite, granodiorite, and quartz diorite of late Jurassic or early Cretaceous age found in the Siskiyou Mountains of southwestern Oregon, a part of the old Klamath Mountain highland, and in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Transportation militates against the development of any possible deposits of foundry sand found east of the Cascade Mountains in central and eastern Oregon because few railroads traverse that area. East of the Cascades, which separate western from eastern Oregon, many of the older sediments of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age have either been metamorphosed or contain much volcanic eruptive material, and even if some of the Mesozoic sediments are highly quartzose in places, they are in relatively inaccessible areas. All the Tertiary sediments there are of continental origin and contain much ash and other volcanic debris, for there was great volcanic activity during much of that period. In western Oregon much the same is true of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks

Jan 1, 1948

By Donald W. Scott, Nathaniel Arbiter, A. C. Richardson

This paper describes the application of amine flotation to a specific problem—that of increasing the grade of magnetite concentrates derived from an iron ore requiring extremely fine grinding for mineral liberation. Experiments conducted on an iron ore from Wisconsin had shown that concentrates containing 60 to 62 per cent iron and 12 to 14 per cent silica could be produced by magnetic separation. The residual silica occurred as quartz and hornblende, either entrained or locked with magnetite. Most advantageous utilization of the concentrate, however, necessitated that the silica content be reduced to about 5 per cent, equivalent to an iron content of 67.5 per cent. It had been demonstrated that tabling of the magnetic concentrate removed sufficient quartz and hornblende to yield an acceptable concentrate, but disadvantages inherent in tabling dictated that flotation be investigated as a substitute. The goals set for the flotation investigation were: (I) the production of concentrates of about 68 per cent iron content from the magnetic concentrate; (2) an iron recovery of about 85 per cent of that in the feed to flotation; and (3) minimum reagent cost. Both batch and continuous flotation tests were employed; the former, to establish the procedure and the latter to verify it. Although the data were obtained on a specific ore, and with a commercial application in view, it is believed that they have a bearing on other problems where amine flotation is being used or is anticipated. Samples Two samples, designated "(minus 100-mesh magnetic concentrate" and "minus 150-mesh magnetic concentrate," were used for the batch experimental work. They differed only in the degree to which the crude ore was ground prior to magnetic separation. They were stored moist in steel drums in quantities sufficient for all the experimental work reported. This procedure had the advantage of allowing all tests to be made on common samples, but had the disadvantage that the individual flotation samples, because of the difference in storage time, were subject to various stages of surface alteration. Previous work had indicated that common samples were desirable for the batch studies, and it was decided that if these data appeared sufficiently promising the effect of surface alteration could be checked best by continuous tests. The size distributions and the assays of the samples are given in Table I. The minus 150-mesh magnetic concentrate, on which most of the flotation tests were made, assayed 60.9 per cent iron, 13.3 per cent silica, and 0.016 per cent phosphorus. The minus 325-mesh portion represented 78.I per cent of the sample by weight, and assayed 67.9 per cent iron. Thus, the insoluble, mainly silica, was concentrated

Jan 1, 1947

By R. J. Wasilewski

THERMAL expansion of rhenium data have been reported by Agte et al.,&apos; and Medoff and cadoff,&apos; respectively, while the linear expansion coefficient was determined by Sims et Al.3 Denoting expansion coefficients parallel and at right angle to c axis by all and Al respectively, their weighted mean should be equal to dilatometric linear coefficient of a random polycrystalline specimen. The values reported for these coefficients are tabulated below: Since these values are in poor agreement, and because of anomalous expansion behavior observed in titanium 4 and chromium, a rede termination of the axial expansion was carried out. A Unicam 19-cm-diam high-temperature camera was used, with unfiltered CuK radiation. Camera calibration was carried out using at Pt wire standarde at temperatures up to 1100oC, the variation between indicated and true temperature being within the experimental error (estimated at <3oC) above 750o C. Rhenium Johnson Matthey spectrographic standard) was vacuum annealed at 1000 oC prior to X-ray diffraction experiments. Lattice parameters were obtained by least-squares solution using the reflec- tions (1232), (1015), (2024), and (3030) for all the patterns, and the additional reflection (2133) for higher temperature (400°C and above) patterns. The relative expansion data obtained are shown in Fig. 1, lengths of the vertical bars indicating the spread in the parameter values obtained by using various combinations of three spacings from the four or five measured. The data calculated from the equation of Ref. 2 are included for comparison purposes. Several specimens were used to obtain the above data, neither of them showing a significant parameter change after completion of the high temperature runs. Some parameter data and the corresponding expansion coefficients between 25 oC and the measurement temperature are tabulated below. The comparison of the present data with those previously reported shows reasonable agreement with the results of Medoff and cadoff2 within the temperature range covered by them (up to 1000 oC). The a values are appreciably higher throughout most of the investigated temperature range. The basal expansion is—in agreement with their findings—appreciably higher than that in the direction of hexagonal axis. The expansion coefficient, al, however, decreases rather more slowly with temperature than previously reported. The expansion along the c axis up to nearly 1000°C appears in excellent agreement. However, at higher temperatures there is a marked deviation towards higher expansion, reproducible between different specimens. Furthermore, there seems to be some irregularity in the variation of all with temperature, the apparent local minimum and maximum values at 510o and 1024o C, Table II, being well outside the experimental error limits. It must be stressed that the apparent discontinuity in the c parameter expansion is still insufficient to account for the expansion value reported by Agte et al.&apos; since a total expansion of close to 2 pct would

Jan 1, 1962

By J. S. Dodge, I. M. Krieger

The laminarturbulent transition was studied for monodisperse rigid polymer latices as functions of particle diameter and concentration at several tube diameters. Breaks in the graph of friction factor US Reynolds number were used to characterize the transition; rates of shear were sufficiently high so that Newtonian behavior at the high shear limiting viscosity could be assumed. No abnormal behavior was noted at concentrations below 30 volume percent. At higher concentrations, suppression of turbulence was observed with critical Reynolds numbers rising to as high as 5,500 at 50 volume percent. No definite effect on the transition was noted due to variation of particle size or tube diameter. The type of surfactant used to stabilize the latex was found to have an important influence on the critical Reynolds number. INTRODUCTION For some polymer solutions and solid-in-liquid suspensions, the transition from laminar behavior to turbulence in pipeline flow has been reported to take place at unusually low1-5 and in some cases at higher than normal6,7 critical Reynolds numbers. Extreme values of critical Reynolds numbers (NRe*) have been found to range from 1 to 6,000, as opposed to the values of 2,000 to 3,500 which are obtained for ordinary liquids. Observations have also been reported of drag reduction in fully developed turbulent flow, i.e., a decreased value of the friction factor in the Reynolds number-friction factor plot6*10-14 in colloidal and polymeric fluids. In some cases, turbulence suppression (unusually large values of Nre*) was noted to occur preceding the drag reduction,6 while a normal transition was noted in other cases of drag reduction.14 To relate the occurrence of turbulence suppression and drag reduction to the molecular or particulate structure of the fluid, it is desirable to characterize the structural variables with some precision. For most colloidal dispersions and polymeric fluids, this is very difficult; particle sizes, shapes and stiffnesses may vary over wide ranges in the same sample. Recently, however, a colloidal fluid has become available which consists of rigid spherical particles of highly uniform diameter dispersed in a simple Newtonian liquid. These are monodisperse polymer latices, prepared by carefully controlled emulsion polymerization reactions. The purpose of this research was to study the transition to turbulence in these well-characterized colloidal fluids as a function of concentration, particle diameter and tube diameter. Typical flow curves of latices of high solids content are shown in Fig. 1. While these curves were obtained with monodisperse latices, the general shape of the curve is also typical of a polydisperse latex. It is observed that a shear-thinning region occurs for low to moderate rates of shear. At sufficiently high shearing rates a limiting Newtonian viscosity is reached. The viscosity µ diminishes with decreasing volume fraction 4 at all shear rates. For 4 less than 0.25, latices are Newtonian at all rates of shear.15 An increase in average particle size (at a given extends the Newtonian viscosity region to lower rates of shear. A third factor which influences the

A discussion at a joint meeting of the New York Section of the American Electrochemical Society and the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Nov. 20, 1913. Chairman Lawrence Addicks:-Our program this evening represents an attempt to set before you the present situation and outlook in the metallurgy of zinc. It is a time-honored custom to throw bricks at the zinc man. The accusation is that he has borrowed a lime kiln and a gas retort and part of a sulphuric acid plant, hitched them together, and spent the last 50 years in regarding with holy veneration the reactions which take place in that retort. The copper man, who thinks of zinc as something with which copper is adulterated to make brass, and the iron man, who regards it as a sort of paint for corrugated sheets, and the lead man, whose opinion as to zinc is not fit for publication, have long felt that, when two or three of the minor details of their respective metallurgies were put in order, they would take a few clays and fix up zinc on a modern basis. But somehow there still seem to be some unsolved problems at home, and while we are waiting it seems only fair that the case for the defense should be adequately presented. There is probably no man in this country to-clay better able to do this than Mr. George C. Stone, of the New Jersey Zinc Co., on whom I have pleasure in calling to talk to us on "Progress in the Metallurgy of Zinc." George C. Stone:-It is frequently stated that there has been no change in the metallurgy of zinc since the first Belgian furnaces were built in the early part of the last century. It is true there have been no such spectacular and radical changes as were worked in the metallurgy of copper and iron by the introduction of converters; but, in the essentials, I believe the progress in zinc metallurgy has been as great as in that of the other common metals. The main reason that there have not been revolutionary changes is that the chemistry of zinc differs radically from that of the other metals and these differences control the type of apparatus that can be used. The differences are: 1. The temperature at which zinc is reduced by carbon is much above the volatilizing point of the metal and it is therefore always produced as a vapor.

Jan 1, 1914

By R. Schuhmann, O. W. Moles

at temperatures of 1150°, 1250°, and 1350°C for liquid copper sulphides ranging in composition from saturation with Cu to about 21.5 pct S. From the experimental data, activities of Cu, S, and Cu2S in the melts were calculated. Also, the results furnish a new determination of the location of the curve showing the compositions of Cu-saturoted sulphide melts in the CU-S constitution diagram. THE "white metal" made as an intermediate L product in converting copper matte to blister copper is a matte approximating Cu2S in composition. It has long been known that liquid Cu-S mattes can exist at a given temperature over an appreciable composition range, with S:Cu ratios ranging up from a lower limit corresponding to equilibrium of the matte with a liquid Cu phase. The Cu-saturated matte has somewhat less S than Cu2S, although previous measurements of the compositions of Cu-saturated mattes are not in good agreement.&apos;" As the S:Cu ratio approaches and slightly exceeds that for Cu2S, the partial pressure of sulphur gas over the liquid matte rapidly approaches atmospheric pressure,5 so that Cu-S melts with much more S than Cu2S can be made and handled only in pressure apparatus. Accordingly, the liquid copper sulphides of interest in copper smelting and readily studied experimentally fall in a relatively narrow composi- tion range about Cu2S. The freezing points of Cu-S mattes show a maximum of 1129°C near the composition Cu, dropping to 1105oC for Cu-saturated mattes having less S and dropping under 1100°C for higher S mattes.&apos; Estimates of the sulphur pressure and other thermodynamic properties of liquid Cu,S were made by Kelley; based on extrapolations from equilibrium measurements on solid Cu,S. More recently, Cox and coworkers&apos; studied equilibria in the reaction: Cu,S + H, e 2Cu + H,S over the temperature range 700" to 1250°C. They measured equilibrium H2S:H2 ratios presumably with both the sulphide and the metal phase present, so that their data above the melting point of Cu,S should measure the S pressure of Cu-saturated sulphide melts. The sulphur pressures of liquid copper sulphides of several S:Cu ratios at their freezing points can be estimated from data given by Posnjak, Allen, and Merwin." However, beyond these few data, no systematic study seems to have been made of the relations of sulphur pressure and other chemical properties of liquid copper sulphides to composition and temperature. The measurements of the sulphur pressures of liquid copper sulphides reported in this paper represent a first step in the quantitative study of the chemistry of mattes. Similar work is planned on

Jan 1, 1952

The Garfield plant of the American Smelting & Refining Company is situated about seventeen miles west of Salt Lake City, on the Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad, and has freight service by the Denver & Rio Grande Western. Western Pacific and Bingham & Garfield Railways. The site lies between the picturesque Great Salt Lake, with its mountain islands and the northern point of the Oquirrh Range, which forms the western boundary of the Salt Lake Valley.

Jan 1, 1925

By W. D. Lowry

As most of the industrial activity of Oregon is centered in the Portland area, the foundries there consume the bulk of the foundry sand produced in Oregon. Although a number of the larger towns scattered throughout the state have gray-iron foundries, the sand used by most of them is of local origin. The yearly consumption of foundry sand of all types for the past few war years in Oregon is estimated to have been approximately 40,000 tons valued at about $285,000, of which an estimated 18,000 tons was shipped in from the Ottawa, Ill., district for use largely by the steel foundries. Until 1945 much of the silica sand consumed by the steel foundries in the Pacific Northwest, approximately 50,000 tons in 1944, came from Ottawa, Ill. and surrounding regions. Although some silica sand was shipped in from Belgium in the past, none is known to have been imported in recent years. Early in 1945, a very promising high-grade silica sand being produced near Eugene, Oregon, was introduced, and all but two of the Portland steel foundries are using this new sand. Until a few years ago, the search for good local (Oregon) foundry sands was carried on largely by the foundry supply houses. Recently the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries has investigated a number of deposits and has carried on and fostered research on the most bromising deposit near Eugene, about 120 miles south of Portland. High-grade silica foundry sand from this deposit is now being marketed in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The Eugene sand is one of the very few outstanding western steel-foundry sands. Field investigations by the Oregon Department show that there are relatively few deposits of sand in Oregon suitable for foundry use. A knowledge of the geology of the state makes this readily understandable. The only major primary sources of the quartz present in sandstones in Oregon are the intrusive masses of granite, granodiorite, and quartz diorite of late Jurassic or early Cretaceous age found in the Siskiyou Mountains of southwestern Oregon, a part of the old Klamath Mountain highland, and in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Transportation militates against the development of any possible deposits of foundry sand found east of the Cascade Mountains in central and eastern Oregon because few railroads traverse that area. East of the Cascades, which separate western from eastern Oregon, many of the older sediments of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age have either been metamorphosed or contain much volcanic eruptive material, and even if some of the Mesozoic sediments are highly quartzose in places, they are in relatively inaccessible areas. All the Tertiary sediments there are of continental origin and contain much ash and other volcanic debris, for there was great volcanic activity during much of that period. In western Oregon much the same is true of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks

Jan 1, 1948

By C. Chiou, D. P. Seraphim

The effect of clustering on the superconducting properties of Al-Zn alloys has been studied by the ballistic induction techniques. The superconducting critical temperature, T,, changes when zinc-rich clusters are formed. The change in T, depends on the concentration and may be positive or negative, but always correlates with an effective decrease in the solute concentration of the alloy. Reversion after clustering effectively returns a 5 at. pct Zn alloy to the quenched state. These methods might be use&lly extended to the Al-Mg system, where X-ray data are difficult to obtain. In very dilute Al-Zn alloys, as in other tin,&apos; indium, aluminum,2 or tantalums base solid solutions, there is a decrease in the superconducting critical temperature, Tc, roughly proportional to the temperature independent resistivity, i.e., -0.2°K per pS2cm. With increasing solute concentration, the T, generally reaches a minimum and then increases4 to a value well above that for the pure solvent. The change of T, with solute concentration follows an empirical formulation involving two constants which correlate with the scattering cross section of the impurities. As will be shown below, the Al-Zn alloys more concentrated than 1or2at. pct do not follow the empiricism, probably because they are unstable even when rapidly quenched.5 However, it seems possible to study at least the later stages of solute clustering by precise measurements of the 1&apos;, following various thermal treatments. A few experiments on quenched alloys, aged alloys, and tests on reversion are reported here. The heat treatments selected for obtaining the quenched and aged states were mainly deduced from the work of Dash and Fine.6 For the quenched state, specimens were homogenized at 480°C, quenched to -160°C, and immediately transferred and mounted in liquid nitrogen. Measurements on the superconducting properties and residual resistivities were then made at helium temperatures, after which the specimens were aged at room temperature for 3 to 5 hr, i.e., much longer than the time required for clustering to be essentially completed. The superconducting properties and residual resistivities were once again examined. To reach the reverted state of the A1-5at. pct Zn alloy, the aged specimen was heated for 5 min at 200°C and then tested as above.

Jan 1, 1963

By G. L. Oldright, F. W. Schroeder

Very great changes were made in the dimensions of the smelting hearths of the furnaces in the period from about 1800 to 1906, the length increasing from about 11 to 116 ft., and the width from 8 to 19 ft. During this time the tonnage smelted increased from about 9 to 250 tons per 24 hr., and the tons of charge smelted per ton of coal increased from 0.77 to 4.3. Dr. Mathewson3 noted no great difference in the "fuel ratio" (i. e., the amount of charge smelted per ton of coal) as the furnace at Anaconda was increased in length by stages from 85 to 116 ft. (The percentage of copper in the slag, however, was lowered from 0.42 to 0.36 per cent. The other components of the slag were not given.) Lump coal fired on grates was the fuel used during this period. The practice in operating the furnaces over such a length of time naturally varied considerably, and there were differences in composition and nature of the charge, yet it may he considered that the improvements made were due largely to increases in the size of the furnace used. Doubtless some credit should be given to improvements in operating technique, like changes in the methods of firing the lump coal. However, the greater part of the advance was probably due to factors influencing the

Jan 1, 1928

By J. J. Arps

This paper is a study of the effect of temperature on the electrical resistivity of sodium chloride solutions based on the published resistivity and density data in the International Critical Tables. This temperature effect is of considerable importance in quantitative interpretation of electric logs, where it is frequently necessary to correct mud resistivities measured under surface conditions to temperatures existing at the bottom of the bore hole. An empirical approximation formula was developed for this conversion which has proved to be very useful and seems to provide results well within the range of accuracy of the data involved. This approximation formula states: sistivities of sodium chloride solutions at temperatures of t and t degrees Fahrenheit, respectively. INTRODUCTION Research by various investigators during the past 20 years has clarified the physical principles of the phenomena which cause the natural or spontaneous electric potential in rotary drilled bore holes. The basic relationship which is most commonly used reads: in which the SP deflection, as measured from the shale base line, is expressed in millivolts. K is a constant, which appears to vary between 50 and 110; the low value applying to shaly sands, whereas the higher values are more common in carbonate rocks. A good average value for K = 70. for which value there is considerable theoretical justification." In order to calculate the resistivity of the connate water R and to estimate its "equivalent salinity" (as NaCl) from an electric log by means of this SP relationship from a knowledge of the static self potential and of the resistiv- ity of the mud filtrate R it is necessary to first correct the resistivity of the mud filtrate measured under surface conditions to the resistivity of this same mud filtrate in the well bore at a different temperature. In order to make this temperature conversion for the mud filtrate the variation of the electrical resistivity of sodium chloride solutions with temperature is commonly used. Since some discrepancies were found in the charts ordinarily used for this purpose, it was felt desirable to make a new study of this relationship based on the published measurement data. Because of the fundamental nature of these relationships and as an aid to other workers in this field, an attempt has been made in this study to show every step in the calculations. CONDUCTIVITY VS MOL CONCENTRATION The most complete published reference on the temperature relationship of sodium chloride solutions of different concentrations is provided in the International Critical Tables.&apos; The basic measurement data on the electrical conductivity of aqueous sodium chloride solutions, at different temperatures, as given in these tables, are reproduced in Table 1. The electrical conductivity values in this Table 1 are expressed as 10&apos; times the specific conductivity k in ohm-&apos;cm&apos;l per unit of concentration in milligram mols per liter of solution C, or: RESISTIVITY VS MOL CONCENTRATION These conductivity values from Table 1 were first converted to the corresponding electrical resistivity values (R) , expressed in ohm-meters, as is conven-

Jan 1, 1953

By C. S. Matthews, H. M. Girner, C. D. Williams, M. J. Edwardson, H. R. Parkison

Quantitative interpretation of electric logs requires knowledge of formation temperature. In this paper, methods are developed for computing changes in formation temperature caused by circulation of mud during drilling operations. The basis of the method is the mathematical solution of the differential equation of heat conduction. The solution of this equation is presented in a series of graphs. These graphs are used to determine formation temperature disturbance at various radii for arbitrary mud circulation histories. Example comparisons with field results show reasonable agreement. It is concluded that, in general, the temperature disturbances caused by circulating mud are small beyond 10 ft from the wellbore but are quite significant near the wellbore. INTRODUCTION Quantitative interpretation of electric logs requires knowledge of the formation temperature in order to establish the resistivity of the formation water with accuracy. To determine the formation temperature, the temperature disturbances produced by circulating drilling mud must be evaluated. -The objective of this investigation was to develop a method for the numerical determination of these temperature disturbances at any distance from the wellbore as a function of time. The first step was to solve the differential equation describing the temperature behavior in the formation during and after mud circulation. This solution was used to calculate a series of curves relating temperature disturbance to shut-in time for various circulating periods. An "exact" method for computing formation temperatures with the use of these temperature-disturbance plots is described, and the results of an application of this method to a well in Montana are presented. Procedures for approximating formation temperatures are also discussed. BASIC EQUATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS With the assumptions that (1) cylindrical symmetry exists, with the borehole as the axis, (2) heat flow is 1. The formation can be treated as though it is radially infinite and homogeneous in extent, as regards heat flow. 2. The presence of mud cake can be disregarded. 3. The effect of heat generated by bit action is negligible. 4. After mud circulation ceases, the rate of radial heat flow at the wellbore is negligible and is assumed zero for purposes of calculating temperature change with time. These assumptions are believed to be reasonable because of the agreement achieved between calculated and measured borehole temperature in a well, to be discussed later. Further, the agreement at the wellbore indicates that temperatures in the formation were also approximately correct. since it is the formation temperatures that determine wellbore temperature after ceasing circulations SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATION The solution of Eq. 2 for the temperature behavior during and after a single period of mud circulation is