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Beyer Barometric Condenser The Ingersoll-Rand Co. is now offering to the trade complete steam­condensing plants for all service conditions. This equipment includes the Beyer barometric condenser, for' which the company has secured the patent rights, Imperial duplex and Ingersoll-Rogler straight-line reciprocating dry vacuum pumps and, where required, Cameron simplex and centrifugal pumps. The Beyer barometric condenser is of the counter-current type, in which air and cooling water flow in opposite directions. The steam inlet is at the bottom of the condensing v el, the water inlet above and the air-removal opening at the top. The sheets of cooling water over owing the pool at the inlet point meet the entering steam. The two are brought into intimate contact by conical baffle plates which assist the water to absorb to its full capacity the latent heat of the steam. The non-condensable air liberated in the condensing action rises through the falling water to the removal point at the top, being cooled to practically the temperature of the incoming water. It is also to be noted that ample opportunity is given for the removal of the air content of the water before

Jan 8, 1916

By R. H. Adams, A. M. Khan

The Huntington Beach oil field is on the Pacific Coast, southeast of the City of Los Angeles (Fig. 1). It lies both onshore and offshore. Most of the onshore section is operated by Standard Oil Co. of California, WOI. The Tar reservoir is of upper Pliocene age, about 200 ft thick, and consists principally of fine-grained, unconsolidated, somewhat shaly sand, with thin inter-bedded shale stringers throughout (Fig. 2). The reservoir is a broad, highly faulted, elongated anticline, with an areal extent of about 370 acres. Most of the faults bisecting the structure are normal, trend north-south, and are the main cause of reservoir discontinuity (Figs. 3 and 4). From 1964 to Dec., 1967, 259 steam stimulations were performed on a total of 125 Tar sand wells. Eighty-six new wells were drilled and steam stimulated. Of the total, 96 have been stimulated twice, 34 three times and 3 four times. During this same period, a two-injector steam drive pilot has been in progress. The response obtained from this project has been compared with the response to cyclic stimulation. This paper presents an analysis of the field observations for the two methods of thermal recovery. History of Development Drilling to the Tar pool commenced in 1924 with an initial well production of 40 to 50 B/D of 12o API gravity oil. Complete primary development of the pool has been spread over several years. Approxi- mately 40 wells were drilled during the first phase of development, which was completed in 1945. The subsequent primary development started in 1960 with initial well productions of 30 to 40 B/D oil. Thirty-seven wells were completed in the Tar pool during this phase. For the most part, slotted, gravel flow packed liners have been used in the wells in this pool. A cyclic steam stimulation pilot was initiated in March, 1964. Based on the very successful stimulation in the pilot area, the cyclic stimulation project was expanded to include all of the Tar pool wells producing at the end of 1965 (Fig. 5). Also, a development drilling program was begun at this time. To date, 86 new wells have been drilled under this program. The number of wells drilled each year in this secondary phase of development is also shown in Fig. 5. New Well Completion Practices Most of the new wells have been completed to produce from both the Upper and Lower Tar zones. Generally, a casing stub is cemented from the top of Lower Tar to the base of clean Upper Tar sands to exclude intermediate water-bearing sands. The water string is then cemented from the top of Upper Tar to about 1,500 ft with neat cement and 30 percent silica flour. The annulus from 1,500 ft to surface is then filled with a petroleum-based gel through a high-temperature port collar. Once again, a history of sand-free production dictated the use of 60-mesh gravel flow packed liners. The Upper and Lower Tar

Jan 1, 1970

By Olav Mellgren

Part I. The interaction between potassium ethyl xanthate and lead salts has been studied thermo-chemically. It is shown that ethyl xanthate reacts with lead carbonate, basic carbonate, thiosulfate and sulfate according to principles of simple chemistry, whereas reactions with lead sulfite, metasulfite, basic thiosulfate and hydroxide at high pH are associated with secondary reactions. A new compound "xanthogen thiosulfate" is postulated. Part 11. Adsorption of ethyl xanthate on galena has been studied quantitatively and thennochemi-cally. It is shown that an ion-exchange mechanism governs the adsorption process and that the heat of adsorption of xanthate on galena is equivalent to the heat of reaction of ethyl xanthate with bulk lead salts. It is concluded that the entropy content of the surface "compound" on galena is different from that of a corresponding bulk lead salt. Alkali depression is in part shown to be due to the instability of the xanthate-galena system at high pH and to the formation of basic lead salts. Sulfate and carbonate ions are shown to have a stabilizing effect on the xanthate-galena system. PARTI. THERMOCHEMISTRY OF ETHYL XANTHATE AND OF ITS REACTION WITH LEAD SALTS In the past little attention has been paid to the chemistry of lead xanthate. It is known that xan-thates form slightly soluble compounds with lead and that suspensions of lead xanthates in alkaline solution decompose rather readily.' The solubility of lead ethyl xanthate is of the order of 2.6 x 10-6 moles per 1. At increasing pH the xanthate concentration of a saturated solution contains more xanthate. Thus at pH 11 this xanthate content is about 100-fold larger than at pH 7.1 Xanthates are known to be consumed when added to a suspension of slightly soluble lead salts such as lead sulfate and lead carbonate. It is unknown to what extent this xanthate consumption is due to a simple chemical reaction because, frequently, observations are made which reveal secondary reaction products in such reactions. Thermochemical study of the reaction between xanthate and lead salts offers a means to clarify the significance of these reactions as the enthalpy changes can be accurately predicted from heat of formation of lead salts in pure solution reactions. In the present work the heats of formation of lead ethyl xanthate from potassium ethyl xanthate and lead salts are determined and some thermochemical aspects of xanthate in solution are studied. The results of these investigations are presented in Part I. In Part II the heat of adsorption of ethyl xanthate on galena surfaces is presented. All enthalpy changes were measured directly in a microcalorimeter. Calorimeter: The calorimeter used for measuring enthalpy changes was similar to that used by Redinha and Kitchener2 which was based on a description by Derbyshire and Marshall.3 Other useful references4,5 are listed. A sketch of the calorimeter

Jan 1, 1967

By Robert B. Kistler, Ward C. Smith

The borate industry is one of the few sectors of the mining and mineral-processing industry which the United States still dominates. Since about 1927, the United States has supplied over half of the world's total boron and borate raw materials, and many of the chemical derivatives as well. Chiefly responsible for this record are companies producing sodium borates from two large deposits in southern California, at Boron (Kramer) and Searles Lake. The sodium borates, or products derived from borax and borax-containing brines, are the preferred borates for industry because they are soluble in water and combine readily with most other chemicals. Calcium borates (or sodium-free compounds) are required for certain end uses, but in general, nonsodium borates are used only where borax is not avail- able. During the past hundred years, the use of boron compounds throughout the world has risen from a few tons per year to the equivalent of about a million tons of B2O3. Leadership in supplying borates has shifted from country to country and from region to region during this period, generally as the result of the development of newly discovered deposits that were better in quality, more accessible, or more economically exploitable than previous sources (Table 1). Primary Products and End Uses The principal borate products offered by primary producers in the United States are listed in Table 2. In general, these products are utilized worldwide by almost all consumers, regardless of the original source of the primary borates. In the United States, the primary borates all originate in southern California. Colemanite is produced as crude or processed crude ore from the Death Valley area and is utilized by the fiber glass and ceramic industries without further treatment. Production from Searles Lake, Calif., is from brines that are processed in chemical plants where borax and other compounds are recovered and the principal borate products are produced. At Boron, Calif., the world's leading producer is mining a deposit of mineral borax and operating a chemical refinery. The mineral borax is mined together with included clay, and refined borax or "lo-mol" is one of the refinery products. The mineral and the chemical compound are identical, Na2B4O7- lOH2O. In addition to ship- ping all major refined borate products from Boron, the company ships semiprocessed ore concentrates to treatment plants elsewhere.

Jan 1, 1975

By K. E. Merklin, F. D. DeVaney

Students of the modern blast furnace seem unanimously agreed that they are observing a major revolution in practice. Rather than changing construction and operation of the furnaces, most of the great advances now under way deal with the raw materials feed. Prepared burdens have gained increasing significance during recent years. Sizing, concentration, and agglomeration have all become bywords to greater production and reduced operating costs. The remarkable results with test furnaces in which self-fluxing sinter makes up part or all of the ore charge foretell even greater improvements. Other investigators have reported many of these advances, and it is enough to predict here that more and more operators will turn to the use of self-fluxing sinter. This change in the operator's requirements comes at a time when one major section of the iron ore regions, the Mesabi, is finding it difficult to maintain, let alone improve, the tonnage and grade of its shipping product. To meet the new demands with respect to quality and structure, the iron ore producers of this area turned first to screening, crushing, and concentrating intermediate ores. More recently, declining higher-grade reserves have led to multimillion-dollar investments in plants to treat the low-grade magnetic taconites.1,2 To yield a suitable concentrate, the Minnesota magnetic taconites must be ground to about 80 pct through 325 mesh, too fine to be charged directly to the blast furnace or to make acceptable feed to the sinter strand. The pelletizing process was developed to meet the structure requirements laid down by the blast furnace operators. Taconite producers are succeeding in their efforts just when the attention of the blast furnace man is being drawn to the great advantages of self-fluxing sinter.3 The taconite operators are ready with an alternative. Why not produce sclf-flus ing pellets? At the Hibbing laboratory of Pickands Mather & Co., where much of the early work was done that led to Erie Mining's 7.5-million ton taconite plant at Hoyt Lakes, Minn., preliminary investigations have been made. Present Taconite Operations: Details of this work will be clarified by a brief review of agglomeration practice in commercial taconite plants. After the taconite has been ground to about 80 pct through 325 mesh to liberate the magnetite grains, the ore is concentrated on magnetic separators, thickened, and filtered to about 10 pct moisture. This structure and moisture fit in closely with the conditions required to produce good balls. It has been found with taconite concentrates that at least 60 pct of the feed to the balling drum must be —325 mesh to obtain good ball compaction within reasonable time. The filter cake moisture usually permits a slight water addition at the balling drum, and further balling control is obtained by adding about 12 Ib of bentonite and 1 1/2 lb of soda ash per dry short ton of concentrate. These additives, and occasionally small quantities of fine coal, are thoroughly mixed with the filter cake ahead of balling. The swelling property of bentonite improves the green and dry strength of the balls so they can be handled without breakage until they are fired. Soda ash is added for pH control to insure maximum performance of the bentonite, and coal is added for more heat in the firing process when required. The balls, normally 3/8 to l-in. diam, are brought to a temperature of 2350" to 2500°F in the indurating furnace. Heat for this process comes from three sources: 1) fuel burned in the combustion chamber, 2) oxidation of the magnetite concentrates to hematite, and 3) coal added to the balls. Pellet strength is developed by grain growth and bridging and, if enough slag-forming constituents are present, by slag bonding. Conversion to hematite is usually close to 100 pct in the fired pellets. Batch Test Procedures: Initial studies of self-fluxing pellets were made by producing balls on a batch basis under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. The l-in. balls, uniform in size, were fired in an oxidizing atmosphere in a standard laboratory muffle furnace. The firing procedure consisted of

Jan 1, 1961

By Allen V. Heyl

This old district is a major zinc and lead source and minor copper and barite source. Ores are chiefly in the Galena Dolomite and in limestones and dolomites of the Decorah and Platteville Formations, all of Middle Ordovician age. Locally, deposits have been mined from Lower Ordovician dolomites and Upper Cambrian sandstones. Small deposits of lead, zinc, and iron sulfides have been found in Upper Ordovician Maquoketa Shale and in Lower and Middle Silurian Edgewood, Kankakee, and Hopkinton Formations. No post-Precambrian igneous rocks are known in the region, and the granitic and metasedimentary Precambrian basement rocks unconformably underlie the district at depths of 1500 to 2000 feet. The strata are gently flexed and faulted, probably largely the result of gentle compressive and rotational adjustments in the underlying crystalline basement, especially along lineaments between basement blocks. Folds of three orders ·of magnitude are recognized, and many related reverse, strike-slip, and normal faults of small to moderate displacements are present. Zinc-lead deposits are commonly linear, arcuate, or elliptical in plan. Most ore occurs as vein fillings in fractures and as breccia fillings and lining vugs, but some is in bedded replacements and impregnations of wall rocks. The ore is in shears, small reverse and bedding- plant faults, joints, and solution-slump structures related to intermediate and small folds. The main primary minerals in their general sequence of deposition are quartz, illite, dolomite, pyrite, marcasite, cobaltite(?), sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, millerite, barite, and calcite. Wall-rock alterations include solution of the carbonate rocks, silicification, dolomitization, clay alteration, and sanded dolomite. Oxygenisotope, trace-element, lead-isotope, and sphalerite- stratigraphy studies are in progress. Fluid inclusions in sulfide and gangue minerals are filled with concentrated brines at 120° to 40°C. Sulfides are directly replaced by supergene minerals above the water table at 50 to 100 feet in depth. In this relatively cool climate and limestone environment, smithsonite is in pseudomorphs after sphalerite; solution transport and redeposition of supergene minerals are rare. Ore genesis is postulated by rising hot-water solutions-a mixture of heated connate, magmatic, and meteoric waters.

Jan 1, 1968

The regular activities of the Institute are financed mainly by income derived from members' dues, from advertising in MINING AND METALLURGY, and from the sale of publications to the public. In addition, collateral activities and special projects are financed each year by means of income from endowed funds controlled and administered by the Institute. In the aggregate, the principal sums of these endowments amount to more than $530,000. An active effort is being made to increase the endowment funds of the Institute through a standing committee, of which H. T. Hamilton is chairman, and of which the other members are: W. H. Aldridge, George D. Barron, Cleveland E. Dodge, D. C. Jackling, Henry Krumb and J. V. W. Reynders. This committee feels that there exists a tremendous opportunity for the Institute to be of ever-growing service to the public, to the mineral industries, and to the profession. It welcomes suggestions as to names of men of means who are vitally interested in the mineral industries, and to whom the opportunity to make a contribution or bequest might appeal favorably if presented in the proper light by the committee.

Jan 1, 1941

By John C. Smock

The rich deposits of magnetic iron-ore in the Highlands of northern New Jersey attracted the attention of iron-workers at the time of the earliest settlements in that region. The outcrops of the oreshoots at the Dickerson mine, at Mount Hope, and at Hibernia, in Morris county, and at Ringwood, in Passaic count,y, which were doubtless such as would lead to discovery, location and development of nearly all the large iron-mines in that part of the State, appear to have had their beginnings where the ore cropped out on the surface or where it was scarcely concealed by a thin mantle of earth. In the early history of New Jersey iron-mining, the careful explorations and surveys made by the agents of the famous London Com-

Jan 1, 1892

Jan 1, 1960

The income of the Institute is derived mainly from dues, advertising in MINING AND METALLURGY and sale of publications. These sources are fortunately supplemented by the interest from invested funds now amounting to over $500,000, a considerable portion constituting endowments for especial purposes. Aside from the medal funds the principal endowments are the James Douglas Fund for support of the Library, the Rocky Mountain Fund and the Seeley W. Mudd Memorial Fund. The income from the two last named is available for the support of research and a variety of other purposes. It is allocated by the Board of Directors upon recommendation of standing committees in each case. An active effort is being made to increase the endowments of the Institute, it being felt that unusual opportunities exist for research and public and professional service through the organization.

Jan 1, 1939

By C. G. Cheriton

The Bathurst mining district is located near the town of Bathurst on the north shore of the province of New Brunswick in eastern Canada. This region is the northeasterly extension of the Appalachian mountain system. The area is heavily forested and covered with a fairly uniform layer of glacial gravels and boulder clay. The relief is low, increasing to a few hundred feet in the north west and several hundred feet in the extreme southwest. Thus, rock outcrops are scarce and occur mostly along streams and ridges. These factors made conventional prospecting difficult and resulted in the district becoming an excellent place for the application of regional geological studies, air photo techniques, airborne and gound geophysical methods and soil sampling. Late in 1952, The Brunswick Mining and Smelting Company discovered a very large base metal sulphide body presently known as their No. 6 orebody. Early in 1953, another and even larger sulphide body was discovered and is known as the No. 12 ore body. Mining exploration was very active thoughout 1953 and in 1954, The American Metal Company discovered the orebodies which have been developed into The Heath Steele 'Mines. The location of these deposits is shown on figure one. In the latter part of 1954, The Anaconda Company became interested in the district and decided to make a geological study of this new and promising base rrietal area. The following paper presents the story of the application of modern geological and geophysical techniques, leading to the discovery of a large sul-nhidp liodv. The Bathurst district is generally underlain by the Tetagouche group of Middle Ordovician rocks.

Jan 1, 1961

By Walter E. Heinrichs

The following is a condensed version of an open letter addressed to Bil Gilbert of Sports Illustrated: Your article, "When a Law Fights a Law, Sports Illustrated. April 26, 1971, betrays considerable unfamiliarity with the subjects of ecology, social science, mining law and history. In a magazine as widely circulated as Sports Illustrated, an article of such a slanted nature misleads the general public.

Jan 1, 1971

By Henry M. Howe

PART I. § 1. Introduction. After giving certain definitions, this paper gives the reasons which led to Roozeboom's form of the diagram of the freezing-point curves and general equilibrium of the iron-carbon compounds, steel and cast-iron ; and then those which led to replacing it with the present or double diagram, in which graphite is at all temperatures held to be the more stable and cementite the less stable (metastable) form of carbon. Next in § 10 the evidence supporting this greater stability of graphite is examined, then in § 17 that which seems to oppose it, and in § 22 a summary of the evidence is presented. The second part of the paper considers the topography of the graphite-iron diagram, rejecting summarily the solubility-lines based on the data of Charpy and Grenet and of Mannes-mann, on the ground that the data even on their face do not really point toward these lines, and that they are wholly incompetent to determine any solubility-lines whatsoever, because they report together with the dissolved carbon also an indeterminate quantity of cement-carbon, and because even such carbon as is actually dissolved, only in part represents the solubility of graphite, and in another and indeterminate part represents the solubility of cementite, or at least of carbon in presence of cementite as distinguished from graphite. It might be thought that graphite is but slightly soluble in iron, because of the absence of any suggestions of eutectoid graphite, corresponding to the eutectoid cementite of pearlite in very many cases in which the cast-iron seems to consist of ferrite and massive graphite only, and because of the micrographs of Goerens and Gutowsky. In these the primary austenite of cast-iron quenched but little below the eutectic freezing-

Jan 7, 1908

By Robert B. Johnson

The refraction seismic method has been used as an indirect means of exploring for fluorspar in southern Illinois by the Illinois State Geological Survey. Use of the method has been restricted to those areas where mineralization is associated with faults, a restriction necessitated by the operating principles of the refraction method. The seismic data enable the interpreter to locate fault zones in the subsurface and, under ideal circumstances, to make estimates of dip direction and magnitude and vertical displacement provided the local stratigraphic units are known and are geophysically recognizable. In this instance, refraction seismic exploration has been successful in the surface mapping of well-developed faults, both simple and complex with which fluorspar may or may not be associated. However, less clear results have been obtained where faulting has been less severe and where there are numerous accompanying mineralized joints.

Jan 1, 1964

By Alfred H. Bell

IN 1945, Illinois produced 75,210,000 bid. of oil, or 4.4 percent of the total for the United States, and ranked sixth in the nation in oil production for the third consecutive year. Production decreased about 3 per cent from that of 1944, when the total Illinois production was 77,413,000 bbl. This is the smallest percentage of decrease in production in the state for any year since a peak was reached in 1940. Daily average production for 1945 was approximately 206,000 bbl. Daily averages by months were as follows:

Jan 1, 1946

By A. Moskowitz, L. S. Redmerski

The corrosion resistance of stainless steels can be strongly affected by surface treatments. Changes in corrosion resistance can relate to surface composition, integrity and stability of the passive film, and to surface profile (roughness). Operations producing oxidation at the surface, such as annealing, heat treating, and welding, can result in a chromium-rich scale and a chromium-depleted metal surface. In order to restore full corrosion resistance, chemical or mechanical clean-up techniques must remove not only the oxide, but also a very thin layer of metal. Laboratory and field test studies show that these factors are particularly significant in less highly alloyed steels. Annealing stainless in a reducing atmosphere (bright annealing) avoids chromium depletion, but as-bright-annealed material does not display optimum corrosion resistance in certain environments. Electro passiva-tion can be applied to improve pitting resistance without significantly changing bright surface appearance. Potentiometric studies show that electropassivated material also displays significantly greater resistance to breakdown of passivity in acid solutions. The application of special surface finishes for appearance purposes can affect corrosion resistance. Roughness is a key factor. Samples of related appearance but with different surface profiles can show significant differences in corrosion resistance. Thus nonreflec-tive stainless with a relatively smooth surface produced by a special rolling process is much superior to material chemically etched to a similar low reflectivity. THE corrosion resistance of a stainless steel is affected by other factors in addition to its bulk composition and metallurgical structure. These other factors include those relating to the specific chemical and physical condition of the steel's surface. This paper will consider certain aspects of surface condition in relation to corrosion resistance. In particular, studies will be described on the effects of oxidation encountered in heat treating or welding operations, of passivation after bright annealing, and of different surface finishes. EFFECTS DUE TO OXIDATION When stainless steels are exposed to high temperature in an oxidizing environment, as in annealing or welding, the oxides formed are relatively rich in chromium. As a consequence of oxidation, the metallic layer directly beneath the scale may be low in chromium to some very thin but finite depth.1"8 Such a change in chromium content could lower the corrosion resistance at the surface, whether or not the oxide layer is removed. Studies were performed relating to the effect of oxidation and chromium depletion produced during annealing and welding on the corrosion resistance of stainless steels. The nominal compositions of steels used in this study and others are given in Table I. A) Annealing Studies on 17 pet Cr Steels. 1) Effects of Pickling Treatments. Studies were performed to investigate the corrosion resistance of air annealed type 430 stainless as a function of the amount of electrolytic pickling after annealing. The material used in this study had been air annealed and electrolytically pickled in the mill. All scale had been removed, and yet the material showed unusually poor corrosion resistance. Laboratory electrolytic pickling studies were performed to determine whether additional metal removal from the surface would improve corrosion resistance. Electrolytic pickling was performed in a sulfuric acid bath using various conditions of bath acidity, temperature, time, and current density. The samples were then rated for corrosion resistance in a ferric chloride spot test. For this spot test, a solution was prepared by dissolving 10 g of FeCl3 . 6H2O, 5 g of NaCl, and 2.5 ml of concentrated HC1 in 200 ml of water. An area on a specimen was cleaned and a drop of test solution was placed on the prepared area. After 5 min, the drop was rinsed off and the area wiped dry. The spot was then rated between 1 and 5 by visual comparison with standard spots. The numerical rating of the standard spots can be described as follows: 1—No clouding of surface; 2—very slight clouding of surface; 3—slight clouding of surface; 4—moderate clouding of surface; 5—strong clouding of surface. A rating of 1 or 2 was considered to have passed the test, a rating of 4 or 5 represented failure, and a rating of 3 was considered borderline. The severity of etching in this test has been related to the actual chromium content at the surface.4 Etching (clouding) occurs on type 430 stainless (rating of 4 to 5) when the surface chromium content is 14 pct or less. The effects of current density and retention time when electrolytically repickling this material in 6 pct sulfuric acid are shown in Fig. 1. Increasing the cur-rent density or retention time improved corrosion resistance as measured by the spot test. Similarly, increasing acid concentration of the bath or bath tem-perature was found to improve corrosion resistance. The conditions making for improved spot ratings resulted in increased metal removal, regardless of specific pickling conditions used, Fig. 2.

Jan 1, 1970

By R. F. Hinds

A pressurizing system was designed and built to apply a radial pressure of 5.000 psi to rock samples. Samples of the Bradford, Weir and Kirkwood sandstones were subjected to radial pressures parallel and perpendicular to the bedding in the system and the changes in conductivity, porosity and permeability were deter-mined. Asymptotic decreases in conductivity, porosity and Klinkenberg permeability were observed over the 0- to 3,500-psi range. From these data, the increase of formation factor over the same range was calculated. The cementation exponent expressed in the Archie equation was found to increase with pressu,re. The rate of change varied from formation to formation. Only small differences were observed for samples taken parallel to the bedding as comnared to those taken perpendicular to it except for the Bradford sand. Above 3,500 psi the data are not good enough to tell if the properties continue to fall-off asymptotically or in a different manner. A possible explanation for the probable litnit of the asymptotic rate around 3,500 to 4,500 psi is that this represents the maximum pressure which the formations have unrdergone during their geological life as a result of burial. INTRODUCTION For many years measurements have been made in the laboratory of the properties of oil-bearing sandstones with little consideration being given to whether these properties had been changed when the samples were moved from their original position in the ground to the laboratory. Relatively little has been reported in the literature on the effect of pressure on the properties of sandstones. The changes in permeability for eight typical consolidated oil-bearing sandstone samples with overburden pressure (0- to 15,000-psi range) was presented by Fatt and Davis' in graphical form. In 1953 Fatt' also reported the relationship between porosity and overburden pressure for four typical consolidated oil-bearing sandstone samples (0- to 5,000-psi range). Fatt later described the changes of formation factor and porosity of 20 typical oil-bearing sandstone samples with overburden pressure changes (0- to 5,000-psi range) giving the values of the coefficients and exponents in the Archie' equation, and the more general Winsauer equation', where C, k and m are empirical constants, F is the formation factor, and + is the porosity. During the experiments of this investigation the core was contained in a neoprene rubber sleeve as shown in Fig. 1. It was held between two steel end members which were mounted in a steel cylinder. The unassembled pressure cylinder with its component parts is shown in Fig. 2. The core was insulated from the two steel end members by a Teflon sleeve with a small hole in the

By H. A. Domian, H. Biloni, G. F. Bolling

Jan 1, 1965

By W. R. Hibbard

Evidence is presented which confirms previous findings that models of solution strengthening depending solely on lattice parameter changes are incomplete. Direct evidence for the Suzuki interaction of chemical effects was obtained from alloys with constant lattice parameter, for which solution strengthening was nearly independent of temperature from 300° to 20°K. SOLUTION hardening principles have been reviewed recently by Parker and Hazlett.' In addition, the interactions of dislocations and solute atoms were reviewed by Cottrell.' It is not proposed to review this information again here, but to refer only to those details which are pertinent to the developments which have occurred since these papers were published. Literature Survey To set the stage, it has been known for some time that solid solutions are stronger than the pure parent metals, and that the strength increases with increasing amounts of alloying element. One of the most extensive earlier investigations was that of Lacy and Gensamer,3 who reported that the solid solution strengthening of iron is a power function of the composition, that the relative strengthening is a function of the solubility limit, and that the rate of strain hardening is a function of the amount of solution hardening. Thus, the slope of the plastic portion of the stress-strain curve increases with increasing yield strength. An approach to the development of principles resulted from work by Gulyeav,4 who reported that the strengthening effect of solid solution alloys is periodic in character when plotted as a function of the atomic number of the solute. A more quantitative approach was to relate the amount of solution hardening to the lattice parameter of a solid solution. This was done quite early by Norbury,5 and later by Brick, Martin, and Angier,6 Frye and Hume-Rothery,7 and French and Hibbard. This relationship is only approximate in character. The next development was to relate the amount of solution hardening to lattice stress, as proposed by Frye and co-workers.9 They calculated what they called ionic overlap from the lattice parameter changes represented as a change in volume, using Bridgman's hydrostatic compression equation. The resulting correlation was somewhat improved as compared to the simple correlation with lattice parameter. The next step was carried out by Dorn, Pietrow-sky, and Tietz,10 who suggested an effect of valence differences in addition to the effect of lattice parameter. Their proposed parameter shows flow stress as a single valued function of the concentration and a relationship involving these two atomic variables. In addition, they contributed new data on the temperature dependence of solution hardening which indicated that it was a strong function of temperature for aluminum alloys. Allen, Schofield, and Tate11 carried the valency effect even further by reporting data indicating that with a given solvent element the stress-strain curve is a function of electron density, entirely neglecting the size factor, which varied by a factor of two. This evidence led to a quantum mechanical calculation by Cottrell, Hunter, and Nabarro,12 based on the formation of a dipole around an edge disloca-

Jan 1, 1959