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By Herbert M. Wilson

We of the employer class represent labor in the social organization and in industry just as truly as do those who labor only with their hands, and, because our labor is chiefly with our brains, the duty is all the more imposed upon us to use those gifts in which we excel in helping steer a clear course through the turbulent waters in which we are now enmeshed. Only their selfish engrossment in the daily tasks they were employed to perform could possibly have permitted the great majority of the intelligent and industrious German people to become terrorized by a handful of the idle, the vicious, and the criminal, whom the elections to the National Assembly showed to be in as pitiful a minority as they are in Russia, in this, and in other countries. It is the leisure unemployment of the I.W.W.'s, the Bolsheviki, and the Sparticans that has enabled them to devote their whole time to a concerted and aggressive struggle against the great majority of those of the world's workers who are unorganized, and who are therefore even in opposition one to the other. In union there is strength, and this was never better illustrated than by these conditions. The great fallacy of our previous attitude toward social and industrial problems has been the belief that labor, by which we commonly mean organized or physical labor, is something antagonistic to and having a different object in life from that great body of unorganized laborers who work with their brains. Our difficulty has been our lack of will or opportunity to think. The hurry of our daily struggle to earn our livelihood under the nerve-racking pressure of modern civilization has left us no opportunity for quiet thought and study. The physical laborer, and above all the laborer in the mines, on the other hand, has all his hours of toil in which to think over, in all their varied aspects, those problems that concern his immediate, personal well-being. As a result he has arrived at perhaps a more true appreciation of the facts of life in their relation to social and industrial conditions than we. Have we not too readily adopted the view that, as the managers of industry under the direction of capital, it has been our duty to think and act in opposition to labor, rather than to realize that we also are laborers, have like aspirations, and should participate in a free and aggressive solution of these problems rather than leave their solution

Jan 1, 1919

By Schrade F. Radtke

The future of lead and zinc, as with any material, will relate directly to their capability to remain competitive; that is, to demonstrate cost-performance ratios that are superior to those of competing materials. These cost-performance ratios are not static; therefore, it is necessary to develop improvements in products or processes to maintain present markets or to penetrate other markets. Perhaps the surest way to achieve these goals, if they can be achieved at all, is through research. The world lead and zinc producing industry established ILZRO as its cooperative research function to carry on both fundamental and applied research and development efforts aimed at the stated objectives. Current research efforts in the fields of die casting, galvanizing, finishing, chemicals, architectural applications, ceramics, and batteries are reviewed and potential impact assessed, some projections are given of possible new areas of research. Environmental research and its impact on future uses of lead and zinc are also discussed.

Jan 1, 1977

By John H. Holloman

In recent papers, O'Neill,' Vivian, and Zener and Hollomon3 have reviewed some of the information concerning the relations between stress and strain during plastic deformation. Since further information has been obtained since these reviews were published, this paper attempts to further coordinate and amplify the knowledge concerning the plastic deformation of metals in simple tension. Ordinarily the results of tensile tests of metals are presented as graphs in which the load divided by the original area is plotted as a function of the percentage of elongation measured over some specified gauge length. The interpretation of graphs of this sort is limited, since the stress required to deform the metal at any stage of the deformation is actually the load divided by the instantaneous rather than the original area. Furthermore, each increment of the deformation is performed on metal that has been previously deformed, and, as pointed out by Ludwik,4 the strain could be more effectively defined: where e is the strain and AO and A are, respectively, the original and instantaneous areas. The results of the tensile tests can be more effectively presented and interpreted if the stress* (load divided by actual area) is .lotted as a function of the strain as defined above. A schematic curve of this type is presented as Fig. I. In a previous paper,6 the concept of Ludwik7 concerning the flow and fracture of metals was successfully employed to explain some of the puzzling results of notched-bar impact tests of steel. It appears that the use of this concept ii; very fruitful and should be kept in mind in any study of the deformation charactcristics of metals. Ludwik considered that a flow stress-strain curve of a metal was essentially a locus of points that described the stress required for plastic flow of an infinite numbcr of specimens, each with a different strain history determined by the preceding part of the flow curve Each of these specimens can also be considered to have a fracture strength. Uniortunately (or fortunately depending upon the point of view), all the specimens, except the one deformed to the fracture strain, flow and do not fracture. Even though the metals do not fracture, the concept of a fracture-strength curve seems

Jan 1, 1945

By C. A. Hansen

Page Introduction............................206 Power Characteristics in Zinc Sulfate Electrolysis........... 207 Current Efficiency......................... 207 Corrosion Rates..........................216 Voltage Required by the Zinc Cell..................219 Power Requirements of the Zinc Cell ................221 Impurities in Zinc Electrolyte.....................222 Non-cumulative Impurities.....................223 Cumulative Impurities ....................226 Impurities in General........................228 Temperature and the Stability of the Zinc Cell..............229 Practical Expedients for Control of the Zinc Cell...........234 Acknowledgments...........................234 Appendix................................235 Discussion...................:.......... - 236 Introduction It has been the experience of the writer, during some five years' work with electrolytic zinc, that the zinc cell is perhaps more sensitive to impurities in the electrolyte than the analytical methods as yet developed for the chemical identification and determination of these impurities; but that, when proper purification methods have been applied to a given solution, the behavior of the cell is quite independent of the original sources from which the zinc sulfate has been derived. It has also appeared that the behavior of the zinc cell is the best and surest check on the correctness and thoroughness of the purification methods used, because it indicates the presence of both current impurities and cumulative impurities derived from the leaching of the ore; it also indicates whether these impurities are current or cumulative, at least in so far as they are of serious importance commercially.

Jan 1, 1919

By R. J. Teitel

FOUR or five years ago an investigation was initiated to study and develop basic information on llquid metal fuels for future power nuclear reactors. The objective was to find fluid forms of uranium (solutions or dispersions) in low melting alloys. A summary of the different fuels was presented in a recent article by Teitel, Gurinsky, and Bryner.' The combination of uranium and bismuth, with its low thermal neutron cross section and low melting point, is of basic interest to the development of these fuels. Most of the previous effort on the U-Bi phase diagram was done under security regulation. Ahmann and Baldwin' reported their findings on the U-Bi system in 1945. Their results indicated that the phase diagram had at least two compounds and possibly one more. UBi, and UBi were established by chemical analyses of residues after high temperature centrifugation of alloys. UBi, decomposed peritectically at1980°C and there were signs of another reaction above that. UBi melted at a very high temperature, and there were also signs of a monotectic at high temperatures in high uranium alloys. The solubility of uranium in liquid bismuth has received attention by three groups of authors: Bareis,X ayes and Gordon,' and Ahmann and Baldwin.' The latest and most widely accepted data is that of Bareis, and it is included in Fig. 1 along with new data at higher temperatures. Brewer et al." and Ferro"'' have used X-ray diffraction to determine the number and crystal structure of the compounds. Brewer identified the structure of UBi to be a simple NaCl cubic structure having a cell edge of 6.364A. The density of the compound was calculated to be 11.52 g per cu cm. Two other unindexed patterns were presented as possibly belonging to two other compounds. Ferro agreed with Brewer on the crystal structure of UBi and identified the structure of UBi, and U,Bi,. The intermetallic compound UBi, has a tetragonal cell with a = 4.445A and c = 8.908A. The density of the compound was determined and the number of atoms per cell (six atoms) was calculated. The X-ray density reported was 12.35 g per cu cm. The compound UsBir was treated in a similar way and it was reported to have a cubic structure 9.35A on an edge and to contain 28 atoms per cell. The density was given as 12.59 g per cu cm. Teitel reported that there was a compound UaBi, and no UBi, compound. (The difference in the compositions is 3.3 pct U.) This conclusion was based upon the extrapolation of some 20 tie lines in the

Jan 1, 1958

By P. van Meurs

This paper describes a technique which permits visual observation of oil displacement processes througlrout the interior of a porous structure as thick as 2 in. A model having glass walls is filled with finely powdered glass. Such a model becomes completely transparent if the powdered glass pack is saturated with an oil having the same refractive index as the glass. When water or gar, with a refractive index different from that of the oil (glass) is injected, the model becomes opaque in the space occupied by the water (gar). visual observation and photography of these displacement processes are thus rendered possible. The following processes have been studied: (I) displacement of oil by water (linear drive) in a homo-geneous formation and in a stratified formation, (2) water flooding (five-spot well pattern), (3) solution gas-drive process, and (4) oil-bank formation. INTRODUCTION Most of the scaled model experiments heretofore carried out in the Koninklijke/Shell Laboratorium, Amsterdam, have been done in steel containers, in which oil-saturated sand packs represented the oil-bearing formation. In such experiments, for instance those on the displacement of oil by water, the cumulative oil production was measured as a function of the cumulative water injection. In order to interpret the measured production data, a need has for some time been felt for a means of observing visually what happens in the course of such experiments. Some information of this kind was obtained earlier by observing the water-oil distribution in various cross sections of the sand after the conclusion of the experiment.' However, the technique used did not guarantee that the fluid distribution remained undisturbed. Moreover, the procedure was somewhat elaborate and the information obtained limited. Therefore a new technique has been developed, which is described below. DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE AND APPARATUS Glass models simulating part of an oil reservoir are filled with ground Pyrex glass of a specific grain size, representing the porous structure of the prototype. Before an experiment is started, the porous formation has to be saturated completely with an oil having exactly the same refractive index as the Pyrex glass powder. All light-scattering surfaces of the glass grains become invisible and the formation is then transparent. If the oil is displaced by another fluid (e.g. by water in a water-drive experiment, or by gas liberated from the oil in a solution gas-drive experiment) the formation becomes opaque in the region where the oil is expelled from the rock.* The back of the apparatus is painted black and illumination is from the front; therefore, in the photographs of the experiments, the oil-bearing formation appears black, whereas the water- or gas-invaded areas are white.

Jan 1, 1958

By Samuel M. Cassidy, George M. Rigg

During 1937 a program was begun to mechanize and modernize the then 28-year old Isabella mine of the Weirton Coal Co., which is on the Monongahela River, in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, at one edge of what is generally known as the Coke Region. Weirton Coal Co. is a subsidiary of the National Steel Corporation, and produces metallurgical grade coking coal for the Weirton Steel Co., Weirton, W. Va. Improvements subsequently made included a cleaning plant for washing the entire mine output, shovel-action track-mounted machines for mechanically loading all the coal, universal-type track-mounted cutting and shearing machines, post drills, 8-wheel mine cars of 10 tons capacity, cable-reel gathering locomotives and other auxiliary equipment. This paper presents the factors, reasons and results of decided changes from the mining system generally prevailing in the region, as well as abandonment of selective mining practices in favor of complete seam extraction. Coal-seam Conditions Fig. 1 illustrates the Pittsburgh coal seam on the property. Cover over the seam averages 450 ft., and 675 ft. is the maxi- mum. Main roof varies from very weak to medium strong; usually it disintegrates rapidly on exposure to air. The "wild" coal makes a fairly strong immediate roof if supported by crossbars and if unbroken affords a seal to the main roof. The draw slate is very weak and treacherous. The floor is characterized by numerous irregular bottom rolls, or "horsebacks," protruding from a few inches up to 3 ft. into the coal. Some are soft, but many are hard and flintlike. Although the bottom slate usually is hard, the underlying fire clay causes it to buckle and heave readily with any moderate increase in roof pressure or where damp. As a whole, the bottom is weaker than the main roof. The coal is characterized by numerous closely jointed face and butt cleats and a woody, springy nature when shot, both having a decided influence on face practices. As shown in Fig. I, at both the top and bottom of the main coal seam is a layer of coal of higher ash and sulphur content than the body of coal in the middle. Factors That Influence the Mining System Equipment was bought and organization for mechanical loading was made on the basis of working each mechanical unit as near its full capacity as possible, to lessen investment cost and obtain best operating efficiency. This led to combination double and triple-shift operation at the start, and, very shortly, to all sections being triple shifted.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. J. Jakosky

The strategic importance of the metallic minerals in our industrial economy, and the declining rates of discovery have focused attention on means of exploration for new mineral deposits. A consideration of exploration techniques leads to an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of geophysics as a tool for mining exploration. One means of evaluation will be to compare the use of geophysics in petroleum exploration with its possible uses in mining. Geophysics in Petroleum Exploration During the past twenty years, the petroleum industry has established an effective exploration technique. Geology is the basic tool in those areas where reliable predictions can be made from surface conditions. In the other areas, where the geological studies are inadequate, they must be supplemented with geophysics or direct exploration, such as drilling. Since geophysical work is far less costly than any form of direct explbration, it is used almost exclusively as the means for obtaining the desired subsurface information. The geological and geophysical techniques are credited with locating sites which yielded one producer for three dry holes during the year 1947.' For the wells located without geology or geophysics, there is a ratio of one producing well to sixteen dry holes. From these figures it is seen that the geological and geophysical techniques are more than four times as successful as the nontechnical exploration. It will be in order to consider further this ratio of one producer to three dry holes. The geophysical methods in use today† do not pretend to locate oil directly; their function is to locate anomalies or structures favorable for the accumulation of oil. For a producing oil well we must have not only structure, but also other favorable conditions, namely: petroliferous source beds, the required porosity and permeability in the reservoir rocks, an impermeable cap rock over the reser- voir, and the necessary water or gravity drive to force the oil into the bore hole. Since the geophysical work can only detect and sometimes delimit the anomaly, these other necessary conditions can be determined only by direct exploration. The success of modern geophysical work in locating and limiting the structure itself is remarkably high, probably over 95 pct accurate. Geophysical work renders an important service in the delineation of the structurally unfavorable areas and their elimination from the drilling phase of the exploration program. When attempting to locate any material of scarce occurrence in the earth, it is of paramount importance to know where not to dig. This elimination of barren areas is the least appreciated but is of great economic importance. For illustration, the difference between one producer to three dry holes, and one producer to sixteen dry holes, represents a saving of thirteen drilled wells, which would require an expenditure many times the cost of the geophysical work that might have revealed the nonfavorable structural conditions. The percentage of geophysically-located wells necessarily will continue to increase in the statistics of future years, as the search for oil is extended

Jan 1, 1950

By M. E. Lombardi

ThE Coalinga oil field is located on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley, California. The structure is in general a monocline, the edges of the oil horizon resting on the foot hills and dipping gently toward the east. One prominent anticline occurs plunging southeast. The earlier drilling was done in the foot hills comparatively near the outcrop and the wells were shallow. The sands were followed eastward and, in the case of the anticline, along the plunge, the wells becoming deeper and deeper until the depth of 4,000 ft. was reached and passed. There is nothing to show that the oil will not be found in quantity at still greater depth. In fact, some of the best producers have tapped the sand at close to 4,000 ft. The recovery of oil still farther to the east, and therefore at greater depth, seems to be mainly a question of drilling. In this territory the formations drilled through are chiefly sands and shales; they will not "stand up" in an open drilling hole; the casing has to be carried close to the bit, and it is always difficult to keep the casing free for any considerable distance. Ability to carry casing of comparatively large diameter without conductor pipes for distances of 2,000 or 3,000 ft. or over is desirable in such territory chiefly for two reasons. It makes it possible to enter the oil sand with a pipe of ample diameter; it eliminates one or more expensive strings of casing which act only as conductors for the water string, and furthermore, in territory where waters are encountered which corrode steel rapidly, it makes possible the construction of a rust- and alkali-resisting water string. It is always desirable to shut off top waters, which may lie within 100 ft. or less of the oil sand, with 10-in. pipe. Where the depth is so great that a practical weight of 10-in. pipe will not withstand the probable collapsing pressures, 81/4 in. at least is desirable. About the limit of rotary drilling to date in California seems to be the setting of the 10-in. string at 3,200 ft., although the rapid advance in rotary work during the past year seems to indicate that this depth may soon be increased. It is my purpose now, however, to treat only of cable-tool drilling. The problem is to reach a depth of 4,000 ft. or more with a string of

Jan 1, 1915

By Robert W. Hunt

HAVING devoted considerable time to the investigation of the Clapp-Griffiths converter and the metal produced in it, it may perhaps be of interest to the Institute to learn the conclusions which I have formed. Of course, it is well known that the stationary converter of small size is the very oldest type of vessel used in the pneumatic process. Hence it will be only necessary to call your attention to the points which are special features of the Clapp-Griffiths. This converter has a slag tap-hole, situated at such a height in relation to the metal under treatment that, when the cinder is formed and boils up as the blow progresses, it can run off and thus be removed from contact with the iron, and will also be out of the way when the decarbonized metal is tapped into the casting ladle and the manganiferous alloy added. The manner of shutting off the blast, when the process is completed and the metal is being tapped, is another distinctive feature. The tuyeres are situated around the sides of the vessel, and enter the interior some little distance above the bottom; they are provided with plugs through the centers of which there are small openings. When the blow is completed, these plugs are forced forward into the outer orifices of the tuyeres, thus shutting off the blast, excepting the small quantity' entering through the passages named. While this is sufficient to keep the metal from running into the tuyeres, it reduces to the minimum the action of the blast while the metal is being tapped. Of course, this is of great importance, as in an ordinary stationary converter any delay in getting open the tap-hole means overblowing, and even while the first part of the charge is running out the oxidation is in frill force. Duplicate or movable bottoms are used, thus more than doubling the possible output of the plant. The pressure of' blast is quite light, never ex-

Jan 1, 1885

By W. A. Ver Wiebe

The year 1939 in Kansas, with a production of 57,944,300 bbl. from 19,669 wells, shows a slight recession from the peak of oil production reached the previous year, when slightly over 59,000,000 bbl. of oil was marketed. The previous peak had been reached in 1917 with 45,451,000 bbl. marketed. Another still earlier peak had been reached in 1904, when slightly less than 5,000,000 bbl. was produced and sold. The production of gas probably reached a new peak during 1939 with a total of over 69 billion cubic feet. Between the peak of the year 1908, when over 80 billion cu. ft. was produced, and that of 1939 the production dropped to 16 billion cu. ft., in the year 1921. During the year 1458 wells were drilled. This figure is somewhat lower than that given in several trade journals, because it does not include wells that were deepened or recompleted in a different geological horizon. Nearly 75 per cent (1029) of the total number of wells were completed as commercial oil wells (824 in western and 205 in eastern Kansas). The commercial gas wells completed number 71, of which 24 are in eastern Kansas and 47 in western Kansas. The remaining completions include 154 dry holes in eastern and 204 dry holes in western Kansas. Based on daily potential capacity the new discoveries of the year accounted for a cumulative initial production of 264,000 bbl. in eastern and 1,158,827 bbl. in western Kansas. It is interesting in this connection to note that the number of wells completed in the state rose gradually to a first peak in 1904, when 2782 were drilled. The number dropped off rapidly to 368 three years later, but rose to the second and highest peak in 1918, when 4671 wells were completed. In the period between 1904 and 1912 more gas wells than oil wells were completed. Between the high peak of 1918 and the somewhat lower peak of 1937, the low point was reached during 1931 with the completion of only 470 wells. In the matter of new pools discovered, Kansas again ranks high. The exact number depends somewhat upon the interpretation of a "new" area—whether it should be called a new pool or a long extension of an older pool. In some places this determination cannot be made until more wells are drilled within the area. Therefore, the figures given

Jan 1, 1940

By Dean W. Lynch

Arizona: The San Xavier Indian Reservation mine is located approximately 2 ½ miles northwest of Asarco's Mission Mine southwest of Tucson. The company plans to produce oxide and copper-bearing siliceous ore at this operation, construction of which is scheduled for completion in 12 months. Asarco also plans a copper leaching and iron precipitation plant at its mine. The plant will leach 4000 tpd of oxide ore using sulfuric acid produced at the company's acid plant now under construction at Hayden. Copper precipitates will go to the smelter at Hayden. A drilling program at the Sacaton copper prospect in Pinal County, has disclosed two porphyry copper deposits. One deposit, mineable by surface mining, has approximately 17 million tons of material averaging 0.80% Cu. A deeper deposit suitable for under- ground mining has approximately 12 million tons averaging 1.5% Cu. Although Asarco intends to place this property in production, no startup date has been determined.

Jan 1, 1970

By F. J. Meringer, C. W. MacGregor

Various investigations have been carried out to determine the effects of cold-rolling on the common physical properties as represented by the yield strength, tensile strength, percentage of elongation and ordinary reduction of area. Very little information is available in the literature with reference to the effects of cold-rolling on the true stress-strain properties. Since the ordinary physical properties base both the stresses and the strains on the original dimensions of the test piece, which are greatly changed during the test, they are essentially empirical values and do not represent physically either true stresses or true strains. Consequently, they do not give an accurate picture of the effects of different conditions, both mechanical and metallurgical, on the strength and ductility of the material. It is not, however, the purpose of this paper to review the various advantages accruing from the use of true stress and true strain values, since these have been shown elsewhere,1-l2 but to utilize them in representing the various effects considered. The true stress S and true strain (e = q') values mentioned above for the tension test are defined by1 S =1/A and where P, A, Ao are the axial load, the instantaneous area and the original area of cross section, respectively. From simultaneous readings of the axial load and the dimension or dimensions determining the instantaneous area of cross section, the true stress-strain curve is constructed by using the relations given in Eq. I. It is then the object of this paper to discuss the general effects of cold-rolling on the true stress and strain values for a low-carbon steel together with the effects of age-hardening and directionality on these properties. Preliminary Investigations The material considered throughout the paper is a low-carbon steel of the following chemical analysis: C, 0.19 per cent; S, 0.118; P, 0.092; Mn, 0.85; Si, 0.01. The stock was received in bars, 7 by 3/4 in., and was first annealed for one hour at 1650°F. followed by a furnace cool. Photomicrographs of this material showed considerable directionality even in the annealed condition. In view of the possible effects of the nonhomogeneity and directionality in this material, it was considered important to investigate their influence on the true stress-strain diagrams. In addition, the effect of strain-aging in this steel was also made the subject of a preliminary study. Effect of Aging on True Stress-strain Properties Since a certain time element would elapse between the cold-rolling operation and the final tension tests, it was determined to investigate the aging character-

Jan 1, 1945

By G. A. Crowe, W. T. Bishop

While the literature in the United States on general polarographic technique is extensive, very little appears to be directly applicable to the analysis of flotation tailings. For this reason, it seemed worth while to present a few polarographic methods of ore analysis that have been in constant use in the laboratories of the Hercules Experiment Station for the past few years. At the time of our initial investigation of the polarographic method, there was little or no mention of its specific application to flotation tailings. It was therefore necessary for us to establish suitable conditions for the analysis of our flotation tailings and to consider possible interfering constituents. The polarograph, or dropping mercury electrode, method was discovered in 1925 by J. Heyrovsky and M. Shikata,1 of the Charles University, Prague. This method has since received extensive development and the literature contains many articles on the use of the polarograph for the quantitative determination of metals as well as anions, oxygen in solution, and reducible organic compounds. Kolthoff and Lingane,² by the publication of their book, "Polarography," in 1941 did much to advance the knowledge and use of the polarograph. In chapter 25 of that book, methods for the polarographic analysis of brass, steel and iron products, alloys, and zinc ore are given. Aluminum,³ cadmium,³,4 cobalt,4 cop-per,³-9 gold,10 iron,3,11 lead,³,l2,l³ molybdenum,14 nickel,4,8,9 tin," and zinc³,4,5,7 in ores have been analyzed by the polarograph. However, most of the work on tailing samples has been published in Russian journals and translations are not yet readily available. In this paper we will describe the method that was developed and used in our laboratory for the determination of copper, zinc, and lead in flotation tailings. Principle OF the Method The polarograph is an instrument for applying a potential to a mercury pool and a dropping mercury electrode separated by a solution, and for measuring the resultant electrical current. The procedure is essentially a small-scale electrolysis, in which the voltage required to reduce or oxidize the material identifies it qualitatively and the current measures the concentration quantitatively. Different constituents in a sample may often be determined simultaneously provided they reduce at sufficiently different voltages. An example is the determination of copper and zinc in the same solution. The reduction potentials are quite far apart, as shown in Fig. I. The polarographic method is particularly useful in the range of concentration between those normally determined by spectographic and chemical methods. In

Jan 1, 1947

By Benj. F. Tillson

To most mine operators, it seems evident that there is a drill-steel problem, although under certain conditions the amount of drill-steel breakage does not appear serious. What is at fault? It may be one or a combination of circumstances. The development of rock drills to the hammer-drill type in place of the old reciprocating piston drill, probably is one important cause for the greater steel breakage. Perhaps the manufacturers of drill steel have failed to realize what alloys are needed for this new service or have overlooked the changes in the art of rock drilling. Although suitable alloys are provided, they may not be SO handled in the manufacturing process as to be in the best condition to withstand the demands of rock drilling. The mine operator may be at fault in desiring to use the smallest possible drill-steel section in order that the gage of the drill bits may be correspondingly small and the amount of footage drilled per unit of labor may be greater; or the black-smithshop practice at the mines may need improvement. The miner who uses the drill steel may also require more intensive supervision and education. Again, the manufacturer of rock drills may have failed to study the types of blows the steel alloys will withstand satisfactorily and which their tools are delivering and so he may not know whether or not a different design of rock drill would equal or excel their present drilling speeds without treating the drill steel so severely. All of these hypotheses probably have their supporters. On the other hand, perhaps we are seeking too much service from drill steel and we need a fuller realization of the fatigue strains developed and should prepare to relieve these by a periodic heat treatment of the steels. However, we do not find any proof that any of these suppositions may be held responsible for the drill-steel breakage attendant to mining. The proposed investigation of this matter by the U. S. Bureau of Mines is fully warranted in the promotion of the conservation of labor and material, and the safety of the workmen. The great range of field conditions, as well as the scope of the research, requires the energetic cooperative support of many interests. Various manufacturers of steel,

Jan 1, 1922

By R. J. Wasilewski

Axial expansion has been determined by X-ray diffraction up to 600° to 760°C in a titanium and four high-oxygen alloys. Expansion data cannot be fitted to the usual quadratic expression and anomalies observed are believed indicative of the changes in the bonding configuration of the valence electrons. Furthermore, there is significant disagreement between data obtained on poly crystalline and single crystal powder specimens. The major disagreement occurs within the temperature range (-470°C) where both mechanical and electrical properties also show markedly anomalous behavior. X. HIS work forms part of an investigation of physical properties of pure titanium and its osolid solutiono alloys with oxygen and nitrogen. In view of the anomalies observed in both the electrical resistivity' and the susceptibility behavior it was decided accurately to determine the thermal expansion behavior of the pure and alloyed a titanium. PREVIOUS WORK The axial expansion coefficients reported for pure titanium are listed below. As can be seen, there is a marked discrepancy between the axial expansion and the experimentally determined coefficients on poly crystal line material. Thus, if we take the most recently reported axial expansivities3,4 we obtain perature interval of 25o to 700°C. The experimental value reported for polycrystalline metal is, however, of the order of 9.7 x 10o6 per OC. EXPERIMENTAL I) Pure Titanium. High purity titanium powder of -325 mesh was used throughout most of this work. The only significant impurities present were the interstitials, oxygen and nitrogen, which analyzed respectively 650 and 80 ppm. The purity of the ma-

Jan 1, 1962

By Alden B. Greninger

In a recent study1 of the deformation of metastable beta copper-zinc and beta copper-tin crystals, it was established that the parallel markings that appear on the surface of these crystals after slight deformation represent lattice transformations. Stereographic analysis showed that in beta copper-tin, the poles of these markings deviated one or two degrees from poles of the form {133}. In beta copper-zinc the plane delineated by the markings corresponded to no one crystallographic plane of the matrix lattice; the marking poles deviated from 5° to 11° from poles of the form (110), and were displaced only a few degrees from (110) zones. Inasmuch as the new transition lattices produced as the result of the deformation are different for each alloy, it was thought at first that the habits of the markings might be the result of a cooperation between matrix lattice and transformed lattice. (Both matrix lattices arc body-centered cubic.) Such a cooperative effect is thought to obtain in the formation of Widmanstätten figures, for it is well known that the matrix lattice alone does not determine the habit assumed by a segregate phase. On the other hand, it is not inconceivable that the dissimilarity in marking habit might be due to differences in deformation characteristics of beta brass and beta bronze. Barrett and co-workers2 have shown that slip-line habits in pure iron are markedly different from those in high-silicon ferrite; and although it has been repeatedly demonstrated that plates of a segregate phase do not necessarily form on the slip planes of the matrix lattice, deformation characteristics may be more intimately allied with plate formation when a transformation is made to occur as a result of plastic deformation. However, there is the fact that the orientation of markings in metastable beta copper-zinc is the same whether the markings be produced by quenching, deformation, or liquid-air cooling; likewise, quenching and deformation markings in metastable beta copper-tin are oriented in the same way with respect to the beta matrix. During the course of the investigation referred to above, samples of 52:48 (stable beta) copper-zinc were deformed and examined micro-

Jan 1, 1938

By Ernest R. Lilley

While American scientific literature contains much information upon geologic conditions controlling the production of oil in Rumania, copper in Chile, and other fuel and metallic resources in many foreign countries, it is singularly lacking in data about the nonmetallics outside of the United States. Thus, though the United States is the outstanding market for European high-quality refined kaolin, and for the chinaware, porcelain, and other products of the European ceramics industries, American literature contains only the briefest references to the deposits from which the raw kaolin utilized is obtained. To the writer, to whom has come in the past year the opportunity of visiting a number of these deposits personally, they have proved of extreme interest both commercially and geologically. It is the latter phase that is discussed in this paper. The older and now largely crystalline rock areas of France, Germany, and other parts of western Europe contain numerous pegmatite dikes of which the upper portions have been subjected to surface weathering and kaolinization in much the same way as those of the eastern portion of the United States. Like the latter, the European pegmatite kaolins have long been known for their freedom from iron and other impurities offensive to the china and porcelain manufacturer. Unfortunately, they are also, like the American deposits, individually of small size and noted for their high costs of production. Deposits of sedimentary clay similar in many respects to the high-quality sedimentary kaolins of Georgia and South Carolina are known and worked, notably in southern Germany and in the Newton Abbott district of Devon and Dorset in England. In general, their relationship to the parent rock from which they were derived is more evident than in the United States and the individual deposits are of smaller areal extent and less regular in outline. While these deposits are of considerable economic importance they did not, because of their similarity to deposits in America, attract and hold the interest of the writer to the extent that several other types of deposits did. It is to the latter, which are so different from the kaolin

Jan 1, 1932

By David Browne

THE literature dealing with the physical constants of nickel is so fragmentary and unrelated, that a synopsis presents unusual difficulties. It is only within the last few years that investigators have understood the importance of placing on record not only the determinations they have made but also the composition, physical treatment, and past history of the material investigated. For this reason much of the earlier literature is valueless. Determinations have been made of the same physical constants on samples differing widely in origin, composition, and treatment, and the results differ widely among themselves. In the first place nickel is almost as flexible a term as steel. Its physical properties are widely influenced by its composition and treatment. It absorbs large quantities of gases and is exceedingly difficult to prepare in a state of chemical purity comparable to gold, silver, or copper. It is vitally affected by thermal and mechanical treatment. Hence in the following pages the recorded literature, where quoted, must be accepted with a certain reserve and used, as far as possible, as a check on later observations, in which these important factors are noted. In every case where new determinations are given, an attempt has been made to record all available information concerning the composition and treatment of the material used so that the data may serve as steppingstones toward a wider knowledge of the properties of the metal. As this synopsis is an attempt by men of metallurgical training to do what should long before have been clone by physicists, it is to be expected

Jan 9, 1919

By E. L. Spain

The deposits described in this paper occur over much of Wayne County and in the southeast portion of Hardin County, Tennessee, and in the northeast and northwest portions of Mississippi and Alabama respectively. The presence of tripoli in this region has been known for some time and descriptions of various occurrences in Tennessee have been made by Jewelll and Miser2, while Hilgard3, Lowe4 and Logan5 have treated the deposits that occur in the adjacent portions of Alabama and Mississippi, but there has not been a 'general survey of the entire field summarizing completely the geology of the deposits with respect to their origin and stratigraphic relationships. During 1934, while engaged in surveys of mineral resources through this region for the Tennessee Valley Authority, the writer collected data with this in mind, and has assembled them in this report. He is indebted to H. S. Rankin and N. A. Rose, of the Tennessee Valley Authority Geology Division, for field assistance. Location of Tripoli Deposits Fig. 1 shows the locations of deposits of tripoli in a long belt that extends from northeast Wayne County southwestward into northwest Alabama and thence passes into Mississippi, where the formations carrying it are finally covered by Cretaceous sand and gravel of the Mississippian Embayment. Occasional deposits occur also in the southeastern corner of Hardin County, Tennessee. While tripoli is found at nearly all points along this axis where the related formations are exposed, the largest deposits are grouped about three different centers. Waynesboro-Collinwood District.—In the area between Waynesboro and Collinwood, in Wayne County, Tennessee, tripoli of various grades outcrops in the valley of Green River and in tributary valleys on either side. This district is roughly 12 miles long in a northeast-southwest direction and has a maximum width of 5 miles at its northern end. Exposures are found in road cuts, highway chert pits, in the beds of some of the streams, and on hillsides. The greatest number of high-grade

Jan 1, 1938