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By M. Smutz, C. J. Baroch, E. H. Olson

IN 1949 an orebody containing some 10 billion lb of recoverable rare earth metals was discovered in the Mountain Pass district of San Bernardino County, California.' The following year Molybdenum Corp. of America purchased a number of claims at the deposit and a mill on the property which had been constructed to process the district's gold ores. Average composition of ore from the San Bernardino deposit is less than 0.1 pct Tho2, 25 to 35 pct calcite, 10 pct rare earth oxides, 15 to 20 pct silica, and 30 to 40 pct barite.' Rare earth content of the ore analyzes 50.7 pct CeO2, 4.2 pct Pr6O11, 11.7 pct Nd2O3;, 1.3 pct Sm2O3,, and 34.3 pct La2O3 and others.' By floating the barite and depressing the bastna-site, Molybdenum Corp. of America produced a concentrate that contained 60 to 70 pct rare earth oxides. More than 25 pct of the rare earths, however, was lost in flotation. It seemed likely that a more economical method could be found. At the present time most of the rare earths in the concentrates are converted to rare earth chlorides, which are either fed to ion exchange columns for separation of the individual rare earths or reduced to misch metal. Current investigation shows that solvent extraction may achieve this separation more economically than ion exchange. The study reported here was undertaken to develop an economical method of preparing a pure rare earth nitrate mixture from California bastnasite ore. Results indicated that more than 98 pct of the rare earths could be recovered. Several possibilities were considered for processing bastnasite ore, but only the method outlined in Fig. 1 was investigated. This involved leaching the calcined ore with nitric acid. The nitric acid process is discussed under the following headings: 1) calcination of the ore, 2) leaching of calcine, 3) filtration studies, 4) solvent extraction, and 5) nitric acid recovery. Calcination: Since California bastnasite ore contains 25 to 35 pct calcite and about 10 pct bastnasite, calcination was needed to reduce the violence of reaction with nitric acid. Weight losses of 26 to 30 pct were obtained by calcining the ore at 900°C for I hr or at 800°C for 4 hr. Longer periods resulted in no further weight loss. Leaching the Calcine: When the bastnasite calcine was leached with 30 pct nitric acid for 8 to 10 days, rare earth recoveries of only 45 to 50 pct were

Jan 1, 1960

1. A total of 14,413 mining operations reported employment to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Nearly half (48.9%) were sand and gravel operations, followed by stone (28.5%), coal (14.7%), nonmetal (5.7%), and metal mines (2.1%). 2. Mine operators reported 240,000 full-time equivalent workers1 (down 3.9% from 1999). Independent contractors reported 42,000 full-time equivalent workers working on mine property (up 8.6% from 1999). Coal operators accounted for 26.8% of reported employee hours, followed by stone operators (25.9%) and sand and gravel operators (12.1%). 3. Eighty-four (84) work-related mine fatalities occurred in 2000 compared to 90 the year before. •The mine fatality rate was 29.8 per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers compared to a fatality rate of4.6 per 100,000 employees for all private industry. •Thirty-one percent (31%) of the fatalities occurred in underground work areas, which account for only17% of total employment. •Although the largest number of fatalities (28) occurred among miners who work for coal operators, coal contractor employees had the highest fatality rate (61.1 per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers). 4.There were 10,839 nonfatal lost-time injuries reported to MSHA, occurring at a rate of 3.8 injuries per 100full-time equivalent workers, and resulting in a total of 417,918 lost workdays.2 •Among all employees,3 the highest injury rate occurred among coal operator employees (5.6 nonfatal injuries per 100 full-time equivalent workers). •The highest percentage (34.7%) of nonfatal lost-time injuries were due to handling materials (e.g., over-exertion in lifting, pulling, or pushing objects), which also accounted for the greatest percentage of lost workdays (29.3%). •Among the most frequently occurring injuries, the most severe (as measured by the median number of days lost) were associated with accidents involving falls of ground, the use of powered haulage, and slips or falls. •The most frequently reported part of the body injured was the back (22.9% of all injuries). Back injuries accounted for the highest percentage of lost workdays (21.6%). 5.Seven hundred sixty-seven (767) cases of occupational illness were reported to MSHA. •The most frequently reported illness was repetitive trauma, resulting in joint, tendon, or muscle inflammation or irritation (37.3%). •There were 155 (20.2%) illnesses reported as hearing loss. The majority (68.4%) of hearing loss cases occurred among surface workers. •Coal workers' pneumoconiosis accounted for 14.5% of reported illnesses.

May 15, 2002

By J. M. Sands

Production of oil in Oklahoma during 1927 amounted to 273,256,900 bbl. (Table l), an increase of nearly 100,000,000 bbl. over the previous year. All of the major fields declined with the exception of those of the Seminole district which produced 136,105,000 bbl., almost one-half of the total production of the state. Because of this large new production, most of the development in the state during the year took place in that district. The Seminole City pool located in T.-9-N., R.-6-E., was the first of these pools to be developed. The Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Co. brought in the first well in this field in March, 1926, for 1100 bbl. This well is located in Sec. 24-T.-9-N., R-6-E., and produced from the Hunton lime reached at depth of 3900 ft. The first Wilcox production was developed by the Independent Oil & Gas Co. and R. S. Garland in Sec. 26, T.-9-N, R-6-E. This well was being drilled for production in the Hunton lime but was dry in this horizon and was deepened to the Wilcox sand in July, 1926, and at the total depth of 4069 ft. developed a maximum production of 8000 bbl. daily. It held up in wonderful manner and was the cause of not only the development of this pool but the prospecting of the whole district for the Wilcox sand. This led to the discovery of the other major pools in that district. Seminole City pool reached a peak production of 264,500 bbl. on February 22, 1927, and slowly declined so that by December it had a daily average of 56,200 bbl. from 321 wells. The second pool in this district to be discovered was the Searight pool which was discovered by F. J. Searight et al. in Sec. 33, T-10, R-6, in April, 1926. The first well was drilled to the Hunton lime encountered at 4115 ft., and came in for 1300 bbl. daily. During August, 1926, the second well was drilled on the same farm through the Hunton lime to the Wilcox sand which was encountered at 4360 ft. It came in for an initial production of 4000 bbl. daily. This started active drilling in this field for the Wilcox sand. The field had a peak production of 40,621 bbl. on June 15, 1927, and declined to a daily average of 22,300 bbl. from 73 wells during December.

Jan 1, 1928

By Carl F. Floe, Hung Liang, Michael B. Bever

DATA on the solubility of hydrogen in iron-silicon alloys are of practical interest, as hydrogen causes gas unsoundness and embrittlement in iron and steel and is also a factor in the metallurgy of cast iron. Zapffe and Sims1 have recently demonstrated that in deoxidized iron and steel castings gassiness and bleeding are primarily functions of the hydrogen content of the liquid metal. These authors also suggested convincingly that ordinary melting and casting practice provides several sources of hydrogen for absorption by the metal. Norbury and Morgan,2 and Boyles3 have shown that dissolved hydrogen affects the graphitization of cast iron. Schneble and Chipman4 included in a study of the effects of superheating on the properties of cast iron an investigation of the part played by hydrogen. Schwartz, Guiler and Barnett6 investigated the significance of hydrogen in the metallurgy of malleable cast iron. A complete interpretation of investigations of this kind calls for equilibrium values of the solubility of hydrogen in the liquid and solid phases. From the theoretical standpoint, the solubility of gases, especially hydrogen, may reveal some aspects of the nature of liquid metallic solutions. This was implied in the early work of Sieverts6 on the effect of alloying additions on the solubility of hydrogen in copper. Recent work by Bever and Floe7 has shown that in liquid copper-tin alloys the solubility of hydrogen changes abruptly at the composition of the intermetallic compound Cu3Sn. It is of considerable interest to determine whether liquid alloys of iron also have compositions at which the solubility of hydrogen exhibits a discontinuous or otherwise unique behavior. Among the various alloys of iron the iron-silicon system is important because of the presence of silicon in various structural alloy steels, transformer sheets, cast irons and special acid-resisting castings. The various grades of ferrosilicon, finally, cover almost the entire remainder of the composition range. Published information on the solubility of hydrogen in iron-silicon alloys is meager. The first values for pure liquid - iron were reported in 1910-1911 by Sieverts and Krumbhaar8 and by Sieverts.9 They found that 100 grams of iron absorbs 28 C.C. of hydrogen at 1550°C. and one atmosphere pressure, and 31 C.C. at 1650°C. In 1938 Sieverts, Zapf and Moritz10 published a value of 26.3 c.c. at 1550°C. Data on the solubility of hydrogen in liquid iron-silicon alloys and in liquid silicon

Jan 1, 1946

By C.P. Clingerman

The recent iastallation of a combination dust catcher, gas washer and precipitator at Carrie blast furnaces of the Homestead Steel Works has given very satisfactory results. The following description of the gas-cleaning installation is based on actual operating experience. When Carrie blast furnace No. 3 was rebuilt the decision was made to fine-clean all the gas produced by the furnace, because the management wanted fine-cleaned gas for fuel in the stoves and boilers. In order to keep the installation cost as low as possible, the gas-cleaning system was streamlined. All by-pass lines and goggle valves for bypass lines were eliminated from the system. A radical departure from the use of 8-in. tubes in the Cottrell-type precipitators was made by using 12-in. diameter tubes in a single compartment, the single compartment being divided into two units by a single partition wall in the top header. The Furnace Proper A few of the characteristic points and dimensions of the furnace proper are: Hearth diameter.............. 26 ft. o in. Bosh diameter............... 29 ft. 1 3/4 in. Stock-line diameter........... 20 ft. o in. Large-bell diameter........... 14 ft. 8 in. Small-bell diameter........... 6 ft. 6 in. Height of furnace from center of iron notch to bottom of large bell, closed............ 94 ft. 4 in. Height of furnace from center of iron notch to main platform ...................... 105 ft. o in. The furnace top is equipped with a MC-Kee revolving distributor, the operation of which is electrically interlocked with the skips, bell hoists, and coke-weighing and charging apparatus through a Freyn automatic charging control. The gas leaves the furnace first through four offtakes, 5 ft. 9 in. in diameter, then through uptakes that, are approximately 85 ft. high, which feed into a single down-comer that is 9 ft. in diameter. Dust Catcher The primary dust catcher installed (Fig. I) may be described as a single-cone type. The inlet pipe at the top of the dust catchei is 9 ft. in diameter; it is flared to a conical shape as it extends down inside the dust-catcher shell, which is 35 ft. in diameter, 37 ft. high on the straight side, and has a conical top and bottom. The slope of the bottom is so0 with the horizontal. The cone-shaped pipe inside the dust-catcher shell is 42 ft. high and is 19 ft. 7 in. in diameter at its bottom lip where it releases the gas inside the dust catcher. The ratio of the area of the inside cone at its bottom lip to the

Jan 1, 1943

By McHenry Mosier

MeRcuRy is one of the strategic metals of which the supply has been raised from critical uncertainty to more than enough for essential demands. Work by the Bureau of Mines has contributed substantially to increased production of mercury in the United States and to consequent accumulation of Government stocks. Other contributing factors have been higher prices for mercury and Government loans to operators. The Bureau has undertaken 13 exploration projects, 10 of which have been completed. This work has comprised 28,376 ft. of several types of drilling and 23,798 lin. ft. of surface trenching, and has indicated commercial ore containing 34,800 flasks of mercury and marginal ore containing 26,200 flasks, a total of 61,000 flasks; equivalent, respectively, to domestic production for 8 months, 6 months, and 14 months. As Government stocks are now adequate, domestic production (currently at the rate of 50,000 flasks per year) is gradually being curtailed through Government control of labor and operating supplies. Introduction Mercury was one of the seven metals designated as strategic by the Army and Navy Munitions Board in 1939, when Congress appropriated funds for the investigation of domestic sources of supply of war minerals. The Bureau of Mines immediately started a limited search for strategic minerals, but the first mercury project was not begun until December 1940. The U. S. Geological Survey assisted in the search for cinnabar by contributing information on domestic mercury deposits, preparing maps, and making geological studies of exploration projects. The present high rate of production of mercury in the United States was encouraged by the increase in price to $196 per flask at New York (Fig. I) and Government loans to operators for mine development and plant construction. The Bureau of Mines has issued, for restricted distribution subject to wartime controls, 13 War Minerals Reports on individual mercury deposits (listed in appendix A). In March 1942 it also published a Progress Report of the Metallurgical Division, R. I. 3627, Cinnabar-reduction Plants of the Southwestern Arkansas Quicksilver District. Uses of Mercury Mercury and its compounds have more than 3000 uses. Its principal use is as a catalyst in the manufacture of gases for chemical warfare; the next largest is in pharmaceuticals. Mercury is essential also for: (I) certain electrical apparatus, (2) industrial control instruments at many war plants, (3) munitions, including blasting caps, (4) insecticides in agriculture, (5) antifouling paint for ship bottoms, (6) dental preparations, (7) general laboratory use, and (8) amalgamation of free-milling gold ores.

Jan 1, 1949

By Helmut Thielsch

IN recent years an ever increasing amount of interest has been directed toward research studying the principles and various applications of sonic and supersonic waves. Though still in their early stages of practical development, sonic vibrations are already used in the emulsification and degasification of liquids. Metals exposed to sonic or ultrasonic vibrations while solidifying show a considerable amount of grain refinement. Often sound waves are applied instead of radiography to test engineering materials for internal cracks and flaws.1 In the field of pure research these waves are used in dispersion and also in coagulation of particles or liquids in gaseous or, under certain conditions, in other liquid systems. In the settling and thickening of slurries considerable time is necessary to compress the solid particles and to squeeze out the liquid to obtain as low a dilution (liquid to solid ratio) as possible. Various methods have been developed to increase the amount of coagulation of the very fine solids (colloidal or semicolloidal) and to shorten the over-all time. The addition of small amounts of electrolytes and the warming of the suspension represent merely the more important techniques. Some of the effects of supersonic vibrations have been reported previously.2,6 From preliminary studies, therefore, it was hoped that by application of sonic vibrations it would be possible to reduce the time required to thicken such materials to a specific dilution, as well as to thicken to lower ultimate dilutions than could be obtained by quiescent settling alone. By increasing the volume thickened per unit time-i.e., improving the plant efficiency-great savings in equipment and time would be obtained for industrial processes. Also, faster settling rates should result if coagulation of particles could be increased. Experiments have been conducted for a period of several months in the Allis-Chalmers laboratory to study the effect of sonic vibrations on settling of particles of different sizes and concentrations. APPARATUS The sedimentation apparatus used in these experiments is illustrated in Figs. I and 2. The essential features are the stationary field coil and the movable voice coil. Both windings are placed around a solid iron core. A leather diaphragm connected to the steel frame holds the voice coil in place. A brass rod is fastened to the voice coil with a metal disk connected to the other end. This disk is sealed to the lucite cylinder with a flexible rubber diaphragm. The lucite tube is 17 in. long; its inner diameter is 2 ½in. and the wall thickness is ¼ in. The tube is calibrated on the outside in 10 c.c. divisions for a total of 1000 cubic centimeters.

Jan 1, 1946

By J. J. McClellenand, R. A. Jankowski

Face ventilation and water sprays are the primary controls used on continuous miner sections to protect workers from respirable coal and silica (quartz) dust. Laboratory tests were conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines to determine the impact on respirable dust concentrations when increasing airflow from 3000 to 9000 cfm (1.42 to 4.25 m3/sec), water flow from 15 to 35 gpm (0.057 to 0.132 m3/min) , and water pressure from 80 to 200 psi (5.52 x105 to 1.38 x106 pa). The effective limits for each control and interactions between these controls were of particular interest. Initial analysis concentrated on defining the impact of the control parameters on the respirable fraction of the feed dust, which was a blend containing 90% coal and 10% quartz. Gravimetric sampling indicated that airflow had the most significant individual impact on respirable dust levels and resulted in reductions of 99% at the operator and 57% in the return. Regression modeling was used to predict dust concentrations at the operator and in the return. Significant interactions were observed between control parameters and often, defined the level for a control parameter where increases above that level did not significantly benefit dust control. Increasing airflow to 8400 cfm (3.96 m3/sec), water flow to 25 gpm (0.095 m3/min), and water pressure to 140 psi (9.65 x105 Pa) typically provided respirable dust reductions at both sampling locations, while optimizing use of control resources. After determining these relationships for the total respirable fraction, selected filters were analyzed for quartz content to define the impact on the quartz component of the feed dust. For the individual control parameters, airflow again had the most significant impact and resulted in reductions of 98% at the operator and 26% in the return. Regression modeling of the quartz concentrations indicated that no significant interactions between control parameters were present. At the operators location, airflow was the only parameter identified as having a statistically significant reduction for quartz dust. A reduction in quartz approaching 95% was observed for increasing airflow to 6000 cfm (2.83 m3/sec). Increases above 6000 cfm had little additional impact. In the return, a linear relationship between control parameters and quartz levels was observed with reductions of approximately 27% predicted for increasing any one control parameter to its maximum level. The synergistic impact of increasing all control parameters to maximum levels resulted in a maximum predicted reduction of 81%.

Jan 1, 1991

By Edward Judd

CANADA'S mining industry is rapidly recovering from the depression through which it passed in 1921. Its total output of $183,029,600 in 1922 was 6.4 per cent. greater than that of 1921, and was exceeded by only three previous years, 1917, 1918, and 1920. Table 1 compares the output of a few of 'the more important items selected from preliminary data published' by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics. TABLE 1.-OUTPUT OF CERTAIN MINERAL PRODUCTS IN CANADA PER CENT. 1921 1922 CHANGE Cobalt, metal and in compounds, lb 252,000 443,800 +76.1; Copper contents of blister, matte, and exported ores, lb 47,620,820 43,321,400 - 9.0 Refined copper, lb 4,286,000 730,000 -83.0 Gold, fine oz 926,329 1,230,985 +32.8 Pig iron, sh. tons 665,676 429,024 -35.5 Lead, sh. tons 33,340 47,085 +41.2 Nickel contents of matte, etc., lb. 19,293,060 17,496,490 - 9.3 Silver, including that in base bullion, gold bullion, etc., fine, oz. 13,543,198 17,611,646 +30.0 Zinc (nearly all refined), sh. tons. 26,545 28,199 + 6.2 Asbestos shipments, sh. tons 92,761 136,657 +47.3 Coal, all grades, sh. tons 15,057,500 15,045,300 Gypsum shipments, sh. tons 386,550 441,160 +14.1 Natural gas, M. cu. ft 14,077,600 14,954,100 + 6.2 Petroleum, bbl : 187,540 178,570 - 4.8 Cement, bbl 5,752,885 6,943,968 +21.0 Brick, structural, all kinds, M. , , 109,009 127,137 +17.0 On the basis of estimated market values, the whole output of 1922 was contributed as follows: Metals, 33.4 per cent.; non-metallic minerals, 45.1 per cent.; structural materials and clay products, 21.5 percent.; this distribution indicates a return of the metal mining. industry nearly to the position of relative importance that it occupied. before 1921, in which year metals contributed only 28.7 per cent. to the total value. of output while non-metallics gave 51.1 per cent. Canadian cobalt originates entirely in the ores of the Cobalt district, which are mainly treated at smelters in southern Ontario, although some quantities of residues have been exported to England and Europe. Exports during 1922 increased even more than production, consisting of about four-fifths . cobalt oxides and salts, and one-fifth of cobalt alloys and other metal combinations.

Jan 8, 1923

By C. P. Clingerman

The recent iastallation of a combination dust catcher, gas washer and precipitator at Carrie blast furnaces of the Homestead Steel Works has given very satisfactory results. The following description of the gas-cleaning installation is based on actual operating experience. When Carrie blast furnace No. 3 was rebuilt the decision was made to fine-clean all the gas produced by the furnace, because the management wanted fine-cleaned gas for fuel in the stoves and boilers. In order to keep the installation cost as low as possible, the gas-cleaning system was streamlined. All by-pass lines and goggle valves for bypass lines were eliminated from the system. A radical departure from the use of 8-in. tubes in the Cottrell-type precipitators was made by using 12-in. diameter tubes in a single compartment, the single compartment being divided into two units by a single partition wall in the top header. The Furnace Proper A few of the characteristic points and dimensions of the furnace proper are: Hearth diameter.............. 26 ft. o in. Bosh diameter............... 29 ft. 1 3/4 in. Stock-line diameter........... 20 ft. o in. Large-bell diameter........... 14 ft. 8 in. Small-bell diameter........... 6 ft. 6 in. Height of furnace from center of iron notch to bottom of large bell, closed............ 94 ft. 4 in. Height of furnace from center of iron notch to main platform ...................... 105 ft. o in. The furnace top is equipped with a MC-Kee revolving distributor, the operation of which is electrically interlocked with the skips, bell hoists, and coke-weighing and charging apparatus through a Freyn automatic charging control. The gas leaves the furnace first through four offtakes, 5 ft. 9 in. in diameter, then through uptakes that, are approximately 85 ft. high, which feed into a single down-comer that is 9 ft. in diameter. Dust Catcher The primary dust catcher installed (Fig. I) may be described as a single-cone type. The inlet pipe at the top of the dust catchei is 9 ft. in diameter; it is flared to a conical shape as it extends down inside the dust-catcher shell, which is 35 ft. in diameter, 37 ft. high on the straight side, and has a conical top and bottom. The slope of the bottom is so0 with the horizontal. The cone-shaped pipe inside the dust-catcher shell is 42 ft. high and is 19 ft. 7 in. in diameter at its bottom lip where it releases the gas inside the dust catcher. The ratio of the area of the inside cone at its bottom lip to the

Jan 1, 1943

By Carlos Rebolledo, Nelson Parra

Arsenic is an unresolved problem in the mining industry considering the fact that most of the new copper deposits have high arsenic contents; stricter environmental restrictions for handling, transporting and processing complex materials are expected and stable abatement of arsenic is not extensively applied. In 2018 Chile produced 24.5% of the total copper from concentrates and in the future copper production in Chile is expected to increase, mainly associated with production of concentrates that will also contain more arsenic. China has set an import benchmark of maximum 0.5% for arsenic content in copper concentrates and this value is expected to be more restrictive in the future. On the first day of 2018 China banned the importation of scrap. Blending practice has been a business option, but it is not sustainable in the future, as “normal” copper concentrates become less and less clean. By the end of 2018, Chile formulated new regulations, increasing the capture of SO2 and arsenic to 95%. In order to comply with these regulations Chilean smelters had to make large invest large amounts of money. Disposing of arsenic as a stable residue is a pending issue. EcoMetales is a 100% subsidiary of Codelco and provides the mining industry with environmental solutions. It has a plant near Calama in Chile that treats flue dust from smelters, refinery effluents and acid solutions from acid plants. EcoMetales is fully committed to contributing to the solution to the arsenic problem. Currently we are developing four main projects: 1) Concentrates treatment. A PLCC project considering the treatment of 200 ktpy of copper concentrates with arsenic from the northern district of Codelco; 2) EPAS DET project considering the treatment of 700 m3/d of weak acid solution with arsenic from the of El Teniente devision of the Codelco acid plant; 3) Borras project, considering the recovery of valuable metals (Cu, Ag, Ge, Pb) from the flue dust leaching plant; 4) Tailings project, considering the recovery of metal values from tailings. The purpose of this work is to present the trends and treatment processes for arsenic handling in the copper mining industry with a focus on the scorodite process. INTRODUCTION Between 2000 and 2015 the global copper concentrates production has grown from approximately eleven to fifteen million metric tons per year. Chile produced 26.5% of the total copper from concentrates and in the future copper production in Chile is expected to increase, mainly as a result of the production of concentrates (Figure 1)

Jan 1, 2019

By McHenry Mosier

MeRcuRy is one of the strategic metals of which the supply has been raised from critical uncertainty to more than enough for essential demands. Work by the Bureau of Mines has contributed substantially to increased production of mercury in the United States and to consequent accumulation of Government stocks. Other contributing factors have been higher prices for mercury and Government loans to operators. The Bureau has undertaken 13 exploration projects, 10 of which have been completed. This work has comprised 28,376 ft. of several types of drilling and 23,798 lin. ft. of surface trenching, and has indicated commercial ore containing 34,800 flasks of mercury and marginal ore containing 26,200 flasks, a total of 61,000 flasks; equivalent, respectively, to domestic production for 8 months, 6 months, and 14 months. As Government stocks are now adequate, domestic production (currently at the rate of 50,000 flasks per year) is gradually being curtailed through Government control of labor and operating supplies. Introduction Mercury was one of the seven metals designated as strategic by the Army and Navy Munitions Board in 1939, when Congress appropriated funds for the investigation of domestic sources of supply of war minerals. The Bureau of Mines immediately started a limited search for strategic minerals, but the first mercury project was not begun until December 1940. The U. S. Geological Survey assisted in the search for cinnabar by contributing information on domestic mercury deposits, preparing maps, and making geological studies of exploration projects. The present high rate of production of mercury in the United States was encouraged by the increase in price to $196 per flask at New York (Fig. I) and Government loans to operators for mine development and plant construction. The Bureau of Mines has issued, for restricted distribution subject to wartime controls, 13 War Minerals Reports on individual mercury deposits (listed in appendix A). In March 1942 it also published a Progress Report of the Metallurgical Division, R. I. 3627, Cinnabar-reduction Plants of the Southwestern Arkansas Quicksilver District. Uses of Mercury Mercury and its compounds have more than 3000 uses. Its principal use is as a catalyst in the manufacture of gases for chemical warfare; the next largest is in pharmaceuticals. Mercury is essential also for: (I) certain electrical apparatus, (2) industrial control instruments at many war plants, (3) munitions, including blasting caps, (4) insecticides in agriculture, (5) antifouling paint for ship bottoms, (6) dental preparations, (7) general laboratory use, and (8) amalgamation of free-milling gold ores.

Jan 1, 1949

By John R. Anderson, Michael B. Bever

CARBON may affect the alloys of copper in several ways. Provided an alloying element does not oxidize preferentially, even minute quantities of carbon dissolved in liquid alloys of high copper content will form insoluble carbon oxide gases under oxidizing conditions. Gas porosity in castings of high-copper alloys can originate in this way. In certain alloys of low copper content carbon may have considerable solubility and may be an effective deoxidizer. In these alloys carbon will tend to suppress porosity. Carbon that is dissolved in the molten alloy is likely to be retained in the solidified metal. The effects of carbon on the physical properties of the metal are determined by the form in which it is present. Depending on the alloying elements and also on the cooling rate, carbon may precipitate as graphite, may form a carbide or may remain in solid solution on cooling. As solid copper does not dissolve a measurable amount of carbon, a carbon-bearing solid solution can occur only if the copper is alloyed with a large excess of an element that forms such a solution. The effect of graphite or of carbides on the properties of an alloy will depend on the size and distribution of the precipitated particles. As Hensel pointed out in discussion,1 the formation of an alloy carbide may interfere with the age-hardening properties of a copper alloy. One would also expect that the presence of carbides or of graphite will under certain conditions promote corrosion or high-temperature failure in nonferrous alloys. Since carbon has an effect on the soundness of castings and affects the structure and behavior of solid copper alloys, its solubility in the liquid alloys is of practical importance. The isothermal change of carbon solubility with alloy composition is of interest from a theoretical standpoint. The binary alloys of copper with manganese and with nickel are used industrially and serve as a base for more complex alloys. The solubility of carbon in each of these metals is known, but its solubility in their alloys has not been determined. EARLIER DATA The solubility of carbon in molten pure copper is about 0.0001 pct at 1100 °C and 0.0004 pct at 1475°C.1 Various authors2-6 have published data on the solubility of carbon in molten manganese. There is agreement on a value of about 6.7 pct in the temperature range 1217° to 1245°C. This solubility value corresponds to the formula Mn3C. It increases very little with increasing temperature. Corson7 states that carbon is soluble in copper-manganese alloys and that the

Jan 1, 1947

By J. W. Schroeder

SEAMLESS pipe, the product produced from piercing a solid round billet of steel by the Mannesmann process, was first produced in the latter half of the 19th century, the Mannesmann machine having been patented in 1885. The products of other processes also have been termed seamless pipe; for example, the cylindrical section produced by "cupping," which consists of forming a cup from a flat plate or disk and further elongating the cup into a tube by passing it through a set of reducing dies. The purpose of this paper is to discuss some of the more important metallurgical factors and their relationship to the economical production of seamless pipe produced by the Mannesmann piercing process. The first seamless tube plant in America was established at Shelby, Ohio, in 1891, and was employed in the manufacture of bicycle tubing. For a number of years the bicycle industry was the only user of seamless tubing, and this tubing was produced by hot-rolling pierced billets imported from Europe and finishing on the cold drawbench. At the turn of the century, the automotive industry was responsible for an increase in the demand for seamless tubing. The growth of this industry was the dominant factor leading to the phenomenal growth of the petroleum industry, which in turn created a tremendous demand for seamless pipe. In addition; the old lapweld iron boiler tubes for stationary and locomotive boilers were replaced gradually by seamless tubes. Since 1929, the production of seamless steel pipe and tubes has increased over loo pct. In 1929, 1,459,9031 net tons of seamless pipe was produced, including both hot-finished and cold-drawn material, as compared with 3,087,3122 net [ ] tons in 1948. Table I gives the distribution of seamless pipe by classes for 1948. METALLURGICAL PROBLEMS From a metallurgical standpoint, the production of seamless pipe has presented many problems. Practically every type of steel, carbon and alloy, with the exception of the superalloys developed during World War II, has been pierced and rolled successfully into tubing. This includes bessemer, open hearth, by the stationary and duplex processes, and electric steels. The range of sizes produced is no less staggering to the imagination, when it is considered that the hypodermic needle, which is 0.016 in. diam with a wall thickness of 0.004 in., and pipe for gas or oil transmission lines, with a 26 in. OD, are both seamless tubes. Between these extremes, the range of diameters and wall thicknesses meets most present-day demands for seam-

Jan 1, 1951

By M. E. Hassan, J. C. Calhoun, R. F. Nielson

An apparatus was constructed for the measurement of inter-facial tensions over a range of temperatures and pressures. This apparatus utilized the pendent drop method, and resembles in construction similar apparatus recently described in the literature and in use in some petroleum research laboratories. The interfacial tensions of benzene, propane, n-pentane, n-hexane. n-octane. and iso-octane against water were measured at temperatures ranging from 26" to 82" C and at pressures ranging from 1 to 204 atm. Values of interfacial tensions for the henzene-water system and their variations with temperature and pressure are generally in good agreement with value? of previous investigations. The data in all cases showed a slight decrease of interfacial tension with pressure at constant temperature in the range studied. The effect of pressure became less as the pressure was increased, with an indication of a reversal of the effect at higher pressures. There was a decrease of interfacial tension with temperature at constant pressure in all cases, as would normally be expected. This rate of decrease became greater the higher the temperature. A general equation is presented for the interfacial tensions as a function of presPurp and temperature over the range studied, and the constants calculated for each system. A definite trend was found in the effect of molecular weight on the interfacial tension at a given temperature and pressure, for the homologous series from propane to n-octane. Data for n-decane from the literature fitted well into this trend. INTRODUCTION It has been recognized for many years that surface forces play an active part in the production history of an oil reservoir as well as in determining the amount of unrecoverable oil. The magnitudes of these forces are governed by the values of the interfacial tensions. These vary greatly with composition, pressure, and temperature. The effect of composition is greater than that of pressure and temperature over the ranges normally encountered. In fact, because of the variety of compounds present in a crude, no attempt has yet been made to correlate crude composition with its surface tension or with its interfacial tension against water. The amount of dissolved methane greatly affects the surface properties of an oil, and there are "surface-active" compounds in crudes which have a much greater effect on boundary tensions than do equal amounts of hydrocarbons. The purpose of the present work was partly to contribute data that would eventually be used in correlations applicable

Jan 1, 1953

By L. B. Herring, Harold Decker

The South Texas area, discussed herein, represents districts 2 and 4 of the Texas Railroad Cominission and extends from Jackson, Lavaca, and Gonzales Counties on the northeast to the Rio Grande River, comprising a total of 26 counties.$ The present boundaries of this district do not coincide with those of earlier reports published in the annual volumes of Petroleum Development and Technology. The war, in its various ramifications, determined and controlled all the phases of the oil and gas industry. Priorities for material and governmental subsidies determined all new operations. New Pools In our opinion, the combine' quantity of crude and distillate reserves added in '943 approached Or possibly exceeded the amount produced. Thirty-five new pools were added to the area' Of these, five have significant reserves and ten offer possibilities of containing consequential reserves. The largest proven reserve discovered during the year was the Slick pool, on the DeWitt-Goliad County line. This is also the most important Wilcox discovery to date in the area. The most significant extension was at Willimar, Willacy County. Other important extensions were developed at Agua Dulce, Seeligson, and Odem. Except for the Porter field, in Karnes County, the Laredo trend, which produces lrom the Jackson and Yegua, proved very disappointing, and this pool is o:C secondary importance. The Scott and Hopper pool, Brooks County, has only orie well, but offers excellent possibilities of becoming an important discovery. It represents at this time the major Frio discovery of the year. The Hobson pool, Karnes County, is not a major reserve, but can be classed as important in that it produces at a shallow depth from the Wilcox. This proves that the potential area of production for this zone occupies a broad trend. Gas and Condensate During the year construction was begun on only one recycling plant, this being in the Sejita field, Duval County. Several others were colltemplated, but no actual operations were begun. The most important development in recycling was the rebuilding of old plants to allow for the fractiona-tion of isopentane, n-butane, isobutane, and propane. Heretofore all pentanes plus have been marketed as cLdistillate,n only a minor portion of the butanes being isolated and sold for fuel purposes. All these new the except propane, are considered vital to the war effort and propane is being marketed as fuel gas. In other instances propane is being isolated and then pumped back into the gas reservoirs for storage. It is anticipated that the demands for this product will increase in the future. Drilling in the Wilcox trend during the year showed the existence of valuable gas

Jan 1, 1944

By Bever M. B., Floe Carl F., Hung Liang

Data on the solubility of hydrogen in iron-silicon alloys are of practical interest, as hydrogen causes gas unsoundness and embrittlement in iron and steel and is also a factor in the metallurgy of cast iron. Zapffe and Simsl have recently demonstrated that in deoxidized iron and steel castings gassiness and bleeding are primarily functions of the hydrogen content of the liquid metal. These authors also suggested convincingly that ordinary melting and casting practice provides several sources of hydrogen for absorption by the metal. Norbury and Morgan2 and Boyles3 have shown that dissolved hydrogen affects the graphitization of cast iron. Schneble and Chipman4 included in a study of the effects of superheating on the properties of cast iron an investigation of the part played by hydrogen. Schwartz, Guiler and Barnett5 investigated the significance of hydrogen in the metallurgy of malleable cast iron. A complete interpretation of investigations of this kind calls for equilibrium values of the solubility of hydrogen in the liquid and solid phases. From the theoretical standpoint, the solubility of gases, especially hydrogen, may reveal some aspects of the nature of liquid metallic solutions. This was implied in the early work of Sieverts6 on the effect of alloying additions on the solubility of hydrogen in copper. Recent work by Bever and Floe7 has shown that in liquid copper-tin alloys the solubility of hydrogen changes abruptly at the composition of the intermetallic compound Cu3Sn. It is of considerable interest to determine whether liquid alloys of iron also have compositions at which the solubility of hydrogen exhibits a discontinuous or otherwise unique behavior. Among the various alloys of iron the iron-silicon system is important because of the presence of silicon in various structural alloy steels, transformer sheets, cast irons and special acid-resisting castings. The various grades of ferrosilicon, finally, cover almost the entire remainder of the composition range. Published information on the solubility of hydrogen in iron-silicon alloys is meager. The first values for pure liquid iron were reported in 1910-191 1 sieverts and Krumbhaar8 and by sieverts.9 They found that 100 grams of iron absorbs 28 c.c. of hydrogen at 1550°C and One atmosphere pressure, and 31 C.C. at 1650°C. In 1938 Sieverts, Zapf and Moritz10 published a value of 26.3 C.C. at 1550°C. Data on the solubility of hydrogen in liquid iron-silicon alloys and in liquid silicon are not available. Martin1' investigated

Jan 1, 1947

By Michael B. Bever, John R. Anderson

Carbon may affect the alloys of copper in several ways. Provided an alloying element does not oxidize preferentially, even minute quantities of carbon dissolved in liquid alloys of high copper content will form insoluble carbon oxide gases under oxidizing conditions. Gas porosity in castings of high-copper alloys can originate in this way. In certain alloys of low copper content carbon may have considerable solubility and may be an effective deoxidizer. In these alloys carbon will tend to suppress porosity. Carbon that is dissolved in the molten alloy is likely to be retained in the solidified metal. The effects of carbon on the physical properties of the metal are determined by the form in which it is present. Depending on the alloying elements and also on the cooling rate, carbon may precipitate as graphite, may form a carbide or may remain in solid solution on cooling. As solid copper does not dissolve a measurable amount of carbon, a carbon-bearing solid solution can occur only if the copper is alloyed with a large excess of an element that forms such a solution. The effect of graphite or of carbides on the properties of an alloy will depend on the size and distribution of the precipitated particles. As Hensel pointed out in discussion,' the formation of an alloy carbide may interfere with the age-hardening properties of a copper alloy. One would also expect that the presence of carbides or of graphite will under certain conditions promote corrosion or high-temperature failure in nonferrous alloys. Since carbon has an effect on the soundness of castings and affects the structure and behavior of solid copper alloys, its solubility in the liquid alloys is of practical importance. The isothermal change of carbon solubility with alloy composition is of interest from a theoretical standpoint. The binary alloys of copper with manganese and with nickel are used industrially and serve as a base for more complex alloys. The solubility of carbon in each of these metals is known, but its solubility in their alloys has not been determined. Earlier Data The solubility of carbon in molten pure copper is about o.oooi pct at II00°C and 0.0004 pct at 1475°C.l Various authors2""6 have published data on the solubility of carbon in molten manganese. There is agreement on a value of about 6.7 pct in the temperature range r2170 to 1245°c This solubility value corresponds to the formula Mn3C. It increases very little with increasing temperature. Corson7 states that carbon is soluble in copper-manganese alloys and that the

Jan 1, 1947

By John R. Anderson, Michael B. Bever

Carbon may affect the alloys of copper in several ways. Provided an alloying element does not oxidize preferentially, even minute quantities of carbon dissolved in liquid alloys of high copper content will form insoluble carbon oxide gases under oxidizing conditions. Gas porosity in castings of high-copper alloys can originate in this way. In certain alloys of low copper content carbon may have considerable solubility and may be an effective deoxidizer. In these alloys carbon will tend to suppress porosity. Carbon that is dissolved in the molten alloy is likely to be retained in the solidified metal. The effects of carbon on the physical properties of the metal are determined by the form in which it is present. Depending on the alloying elements and also on the cooling rate, carbon may precipitate as graphite, may form a carbide or may remain in solid solution on cooling. As solid copper does not dissolve a measurable amount of carbon, a carbon-bearing solid solution can occur only if the copper is alloyed with a large excess of an element that forms such a solution. The effect of graphite or of carbides on the properties of an alloy will depend on the size and distribution of the precipitated particles. As Hensel pointed out in discussion,' the formation of an alloy carbide may interfere with the age-hardening properties of a copper alloy. One would also expect that the presence of carbides or of graphite will under certain conditions promote corrosion or high-temperature failure in nonferrous alloys. Since carbon has an effect on the soundness of castings and affects the structure and behavior of solid copper alloys, its solubility in the liquid alloys is of practical importance. The isothermal change of carbon solubility with alloy composition is of interest from a theoretical standpoint. The binary alloys of copper with manganese and with nickel are used industrially and serve as a base for more complex alloys. The solubility of carbon in each of these metals is known, but its solubility in their alloys has not been determined. Earlier Data The solubility of carbon in molten pure copper is about o.oooi pct at II00°C and 0.0004 pct at 1475°C.l Various authors2""6 have published data on the solubility of carbon in molten manganese. There is agreement on a value of about 6.7 pct in the temperature range r2170 to 1245°c This solubility value corresponds to the formula Mn3C. It increases very little with increasing temperature. Corson7 states that carbon is soluble in copper-manganese alloys and that the

Jan 1, 1947

By L. B. Herring, Harold Decker

The South Texas area, discussed herein, represents districts 2 and 4 of the Texas Railroad Cominission and extends from Jackson, Lavaca, and Gonzales Counties on the northeast to the Rio Grande River, comprising a total of 26 counties.$ The present boundaries of this district do not coincide with those of earlier reports published in the annual volumes of Petroleum Development and Technology. The war, in its various ramifications, determined and controlled all the phases of the oil and gas industry. Priorities for material and governmental subsidies determined all new operations. New Pools In our opinion, the combine' quantity of crude and distillate reserves added in '943 approached Or possibly exceeded the amount produced. Thirty-five new pools were added to the area' Of these, five have significant reserves and ten offer possibilities of containing consequential reserves. The largest proven reserve discovered during the year was the Slick pool, on the DeWitt-Goliad County line. This is also the most important Wilcox discovery to date in the area. The most significant extension was at Willimar, Willacy County. Other important extensions were developed at Agua Dulce, Seeligson, and Odem. Except for the Porter field, in Karnes County, the Laredo trend, which produces lrom the Jackson and Yegua, proved very disappointing, and this pool is o:C secondary importance. The Scott and Hopper pool, Brooks County, has only orie well, but offers excellent possibilities of becoming an important discovery. It represents at this time the major Frio discovery of the year. The Hobson pool, Karnes County, is not a major reserve, but can be classed as important in that it produces at a shallow depth from the Wilcox. This proves that the potential area of production for this zone occupies a broad trend. Gas and Condensate During the year construction was begun on only one recycling plant, this being in the Sejita field, Duval County. Several others were colltemplated, but no actual operations were begun. The most important development in recycling was the rebuilding of old plants to allow for the fractiona-tion of isopentane, n-butane, isobutane, and propane. Heretofore all pentanes plus have been marketed as cLdistillate,n only a minor portion of the butanes being isolated and sold for fuel purposes. All these new the except propane, are considered vital to the war effort and propane is being marketed as fuel gas. In other instances propane is being isolated and then pumped back into the gas reservoirs for storage. It is anticipated that the demands for this product will increase in the future. Drilling in the Wilcox trend during the year showed the existence of valuable gas

Jan 1, 1944