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Goethite ore are the third most abundant source of iron. The overwhelming part of these ore is represented by low-grade varieties which cannot be used in iron and steel industry without preliminary beneficiation. Biomass is a renewable solid fuel, which is feasible for the substitution of coke and coal in the manufacturing due to its lower contents of harmful elements and abundant raw material sources. Utilization of biomass in iron ore sintering process as heating agent and reducing agent contributes to energy conservation and emission reduction. The biomass was mixed together with goethite ore for roasting process to investigate the effects of reduction roasting. The results show that the goethite ore is dramatically reduced and magnetized into maghemite by biomass with the biomass dosage less than 20% and the roasting temperature below 650 oC. When the goethite ore roasted with biomass, the magnetization values could be enhanced more than two orders of magnitude, meets the standard of magnetic separation, which could significantly reduce the iron beneficiation cost. Keywords: biomass, goethite, reduction, magnetization, roasting

Sep 1, 2012

By J. Drzymala

Ores and raw materials are subjected to mineral processing operations to increase the content of their useful components. Upgrading of these materials can proceed with different selectivity and therefore, there is a need to know and monitor the separation results of the process. The separation results can be evaluated using tables and graphs called upgrading curves. The course of lines in the upgrading curves is usually complex and depends on the graph type and process parameters. The Halbich grade vs. recovery plot is frequently used because is practical and it indicates several characteristic features of separation results. Separations by means of flotation of several different shale, dolomite and sandstone copper ores were performed along with determination of their mineral composition, copper content, liberation degree, and the maximum theoretical copper content in the first concentrate. These data, plotted as the Halbich upgrading curves, allowed to find other characteristic points such as practical maximum copper content in the first concentrate, maximum curvature coexisting with the liberation degree, maximum recovery of ore valuable components, and the slope the recovery-grade line at high recoveries as a measure of liberation. Correlations between theoretical and practical maximum copper contents in the first concentrate as well liberation degree and maximum curvature were also presented. They show that the ore type significantly influences the shape of the Halbich curve and its characteristic points.

Sep 1, 2012

By M. Narasimha

The flow in a hydrocyclone classifier is highly turbulent complex nature of multi-phase structure, which has led designers to rely on empirical mathematical models for predicting the performance. A number of classifying cyclone models have been developed and successfully used in mineral comminution circuit simulators over the past four decades (Plitt, 1976 and Nageswararao, 1978). However, most of the mathematical models currently available to describe hydrocyclone classifier performance are based on single average mineral density component behavior. In industrial comminution circuits, the feed to the cyclone composed of a mixture of particles of varying degrees of liberation and sizes. The behavior of multi-component particles in a hydrocyclone is poorly understood and unaccounted for in most of the mathematical model equations available in the literature. There is evidence from a number of experimental data sets indicating the significant influence of the multi-component particles on measured cyclone performance. A concept for modeling the performance of hydrocyclones based on multi-component behavior is proposed in this paper. A set of semi-empirical model equations for cut-size, sharpness of separation are presented and the corresponding model parameters evaluated from the measured data are given.

Sep 1, 2012

Micro-fine disseminated molybdenite was ground in a laboratory stirred mill using steel media and zirconium media respectively. The floatability of ground molybdenite and slurry chemistry was investigated. It was found that the total recovery of ground molybdenite using zirconium media was higher while the pH and Eh of the slurry are lower than that using steel media. When steel media was used, iron oxy-hydroxides had been generated coated on the surface of molybdenite, and decreased the floatability of molybdenite, especially of the -10µm particles. The iron and lead oxy-hydroxides was generated by the reaction between steel media with pyrite and galena associated with molybdenite. It was also found that changing the grinding media to inert can benefit the flotation of molybdenite. Keywords: stirred mill, grinding environment, floatability, micro-fine disseminated molybdenite, fine grinding

Sep 1, 2012

By Zofia Swierczek

This paper reports the results of a detailed mineralogical study of typical, low-grade Australian nickel laterite run-of-mine ores. Successful development of an effective beneficiation process for upgrading such low grade laterite ores relies on good knowledge of the laterite mineralogy and the value metal(s)? distribution characteristics. Both QEMSCAN and quantitative X-ray diffraction techniques were used to conduct the mineralogical analysis of three types of laterite ores, and the results were compared with those obtained by chemical analysis. Some of the major challenges faced included accounting for the mismatch between the nickel values measured by QEMSCAN and those recorded by chemical analysis. This was primarily due to the relatively low concentration of nickel in the ores and its wide dissemination among several major host minerals in complex association. Careful analysis showed that the limit of nickel detection in iron oxide host mineral grains under normal operating conditions was around 4%. Keywords: nickel laterites, mineralogy, characterisation, QXRD, QEMSCAN

Sep 1, 2012

By L. Li

Chemical composition, mineral composition, and iron occurrence state of main mineral are studied, Research of mineral processing technology is carried out according to ore features. The test results indicate, that through staged grinding-staged concentration process, the better separation index is up to 65.54%, iron preparation concentrate grade and 85.66% recovery with the fineness (-200 mesh) 45.88% in the primary grinding ore and the fineness (-200 mesh) 75.50%, in secondary grinding ore in the situation of best magnetic field intensity (roughing 0.2T and cleaning 0.15T).

Sep 1, 2012

As the high-grade copper deposits in the world become depleted, there is an increasing focus on developing lower-grade ores which contain problematic impurities such as arsenic. Indeed, many high-arsenic ore bodies remain undeveloped because of their high arsenic levels. Separation of arsenic from copper at the beneficiation stage is difficult using the current processing techniques and invariably copper concentrates produced from these ores contain high arsenic levels, sometimes so high as to make them unacceptable to copper smelters. New, sustainable approaches are needed to allow development of high-arsenic copper ores while at the same time minimizing arsenic dispersion into the biosphere. The most promising route for separating arsenic from copper at the flotation stage centers on the use of pulp potential control. In recent years CSIRO has demonstrated at laboratory scale, for a number of high-arsenic copper ores, that crude flotation separation between arsenic-bearing minerals and copper-bearing minerals can be made. The differences in specific minerals responses to changes in pulp potential and pulp pH are exploited for this separation. Such separations nominally produce a low-arsenic high-copper concentrate and a low-copper high-arsenic concentrate. The former can be smelted without penalty, while the latter requires further treatment to capture and stabilize the arsenic and to recover the residual copper. Consideration has now been given to treatment options for the high-arsenic low-copper product. A pyrometallurgical option, involving a low temperature roast to selectively fume off the arsenic and leave a high-copper calcine, coupled with an arsenic stabilization step, has been demonstrated in the laboratory, and a preliminary techno-economic evaluation shows the process to be economically favorable. These results were recently published. CSIRO has now investigated an alternate hydrometallurgical option, involving atmospheric alkaline sulphide leaching of the high-arsenic product, where the arsenic is selectively dissolved leaving a copper-rich leach residue. The leaching testwork was carried at on the same high-arsenic low-copper material used in the roasting studies, enabling a techno-economic comparison of the alternate roasting and leaching treatment options to be made. The alkaline leaching work is briefly described and the results of the process option comparison presented and discussed. Keywords: arsenic, copper, economics, enargite, ore flotation, tennantite INTRODUCTION

Sep 1, 2012

By S. Kondratiev

Mechanism of the action of nonpolar physically adsorbed reactants in froth flotation is under discussion in the paper. It is shown that their basic influence on flotation includes removing of the kinetics restrictions of the flotation complex formation. Experimental data and practical evidence reported in the paper sustain the proposed mechanism. There are discussed potential dependence of the kinetics of dixanthogen formation on platinum and its influence on the induction time (IT).

Sep 1, 2012

The ever increasing demand for energy and the progressive depletion of crude oil resources, have renewed interest in oil shale as an alternative fuel resource. Weathered oil shale samples were assembled from El-Nakheil phosphate mine in Quseir area, Eastern desert, Egypt. The oil shale samples were prepared and analyzed by XRD (X-ray diffraction), XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectrometry), and optical microscopic techniques. Rock-Eval pyrolysis and total organic carbon were used to study shale hydrocarbon potential. A leaching procedure using inorganic and organic acids was used to selectively dissolve the oil shale associated ash forming minerals. XRD results showed that calcite is the dominant carbonate mineral, whereas primary silicate minerals are quartz and montmorillonite. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) observations indicated that the organic matter is dispersed throughout the rock matrix. The acid soluble fraction upon leaching was determined to be 37.59 and 42.74 wt% by using 5% HCl and 10% HCl, respectively. The TOC was increased from 20.78 to 29.88 and 34.09 wt% by using 5% HCl and 10% HCl, respectively. Keywords: el nakheil oil shale, characterization, xrd, xrf, sem, elemental analysis, proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, thin section, rock eval pyrolysis, acid leaching

Sep 1, 2012

By Alok Tripathy

A simulation code called SIMJIG and the user interfaces have been developed using discrete element method (DEM) and the .NET platform respectively for the jigging process. DEM platform is used for tracking of particles in the jigging operation. DEM uses the net force balance on the particles to track the trajectory of the particle. Simulation results are compared with experimental results obtained by jigging of low grade iron ore lumps. Two different iron ore samples one from Chatishgarh and one from Odisha were used for the experimental studies. The Alljig? stratification test rig meant for batch laboratory experimental studies has been used in the present work. The behavior of different sizes of material on jigging has been examined. Later, the particle size behavior during jigging at different layers of the jig bed has been studied. Further stratification profile across the jig bed has also been studied. It was observed that simulation results are matching quite nicely with the experimental results. The SIMJIG simulator developed in the present study could be used for predicting the performance of the jigging operation effectively. Keywords: DEM, gravity concentration, jigging, iron ore, simulation

Sep 1, 2012

By T. Leißner

This contribution deals with the mineral processing of Li-silicate greisen-type ores comprising of quartz, topaz and zinnwaldite (lithium-rich mica). The origin of the greisen-type ores processed is the Ore Mountains(Germany) where it is explored as a potential resource for the production of lithium carbonate. The goal is to develop a process chain for the enrichment of zinnwaldite using dry techniques only. As basis for the investigation the process chain, which historically was used to process the greisen focused on cassiterite and wolframite, is taken and modified towards the zinnwaldite. Starting with crushed material with particle sizes smaller than 35 millimeters, investigations on different approaches to grinding to liberate mica from gangue are carried out. Concentrates of zinnwaldite are then produced by magnetic separation of size fractions. To assess the success of grinding, classification and separation, mineral liberation analysis and atomic absorption spectroscopy are used. The amount of lithium measured in the sample with atomic absorption spectroscopy was used to calculate the content of zinnwaldite based on its known mineral chemistry. Combined with the particle size distributions, product qualities are determined. Altogether, this allows the thorough evaluation of the success of comminution with focus on following steps of concentration. Keywords: lithium, zinnwaldite, magnetic separation, mineral liberation analysis

Sep 1, 2012

By Aline Tavares

This paper describes the investigative studies carried out at Vale´s Center of Mineral Development (CDM) for a nickel sulfide deposit aiming to develop an adequate flotation flowsheet. The CDM facilities comprises of very well equipped laboratories to develop hydrometallurgical, comminution, flotation, physical separation processes, besides chemical and mineralogical laboratories, that are required to accomplish pre-feasibility studies, new process routes developments and, eventually, brownfield projects. Close association of the flotation group with the geometallurgy and the mineralogy teams play a key role during greenfield project development. Most of the information required by process engineers responsible for the flowsheet development can be provided by the mineralogy team and its mineralogical laboratory at CDM. During the flowsheet development of this nickel sulfide deposit, two ore types were identified as the most abundant in the deposit, named biotite-chlorite hydrothermalite (HID) and magnetite hydrothermalite (MAG HID). Six samples were selected for the investigative studies based on this initial information. Nickel grade varied from 0.39% to 1.95%. The main nickel-bearing minerals were millerite and pentlandite whereas the main non-sulphide gangue minerals were quartz, plagioclase, biotite, chlorite, actinolite, and/or magnetite. Electron microprobe (EMP) identified the presence of nickel in solid solution in gangue minerals such as biotite, chlorite, and actinolite. Nickel deportment in silicates varied from 3% to almost 40%. Magnesium was distributed in biotite and chlorite, except in sample MAG HID, in which talc was responsible for almost 50% of the Mg content. Liberation studies indicated that the optimum feed grind size was around 150µm and that pyrite occurred highly associated to the nickel sulfides. The flotation tests were planned based on the information provided by the mineralogical data. Rougher flotation tests indicated that the optimum P80 of the primary grind was 212µm for the HID type and 150µm for the MAG HID. From the reagents tested, amyl xanthate proved to be the most efficient in the recovery of the sulfides. In the MAG HID sample talc was well depressed by dosing 600g/t of CMC. Nickel recoveries in the rougher stage were lower than 90% due to the nickel distributed in silicates. However, sulfur recovery was around 95%, indicating high recovery of the total sulfides. Open circuit and locked cycle tests were conducted to evaluate the effect of the regrind size in the nickel grade and recovery (P80 of 44µm and 20µm). Nickel recovery decreased from 70% to 65% when finer regrind size was tested. Although nickel recovery decreased by 5%, the finer regrind size lead to a higher Ni grade (from 11% to 23%Ni) and lower fluorine grade (from 1138ppm to 700ppm) in the concentrate. Keywords: nickel sulfide, flotation, mineralogical characterization, flowsheet development

Sep 1, 2012

In flotation, particulate materials are separated by controlling the hydrophobicity of the particles using appropriate collectors. In this regard, contact angle (?) is the most important process variable. However, the flotation models used in industry today do not include ? as a parameter. As result, flotation circuits are designed based on the first-order flotation rate constants (k) determined from laboratory experiments. A problem with this approach is that laboratory experiments usually give substantially higher k values than achievable in full-scale operations, which makes it difficult to use the model for plant design. In the present work, we have developed a model from first principles using both surface chemistry and hydrodynamic parameters, such as ?, ?-potentials, surface tension (?), particle size, energy dissipation rate, etc. The basic approach is similar to the one developed previously for bubble-particle interactions under laminar flow conditions (Yoon and Mao, J. Colloid and Interface Science, 181, 61, 1996) except that the model parameters have been modified by considering the turbulence in a flotation cell. In addition, the model describes the recovery processes in froth phase, including bubble-coarsening due to coalescence. Based on this model, we have developed a computer simulator (FlotSim) that can be used to design flotation circuits from the mineralogical (or liberation) data on the feed and the hydrodynamic characteristics of a flotation machine. Since the model is dynamic, it can also be used for process control. Further, the simulator has predictive capacity as it is based on a first-principles model. The model-based simulator has been validated in a carefully controlled bench-scale flotation experiments. Keywords: flotation kinetics, flotation model, contact angle,?-potential, size-by-size recovery, liberation, DLVO theory

Sep 1, 2012

By S. Leroy

Grinding is the most energy consuming step in mineral processing, however, it is still poorly understood and its efficiency is difficult to monitor. Mill performances are traditionally measured at the mill discharge, on the basis of a mass percentage passing a certain sieve. This approach does not reflect what happens to the fines through milling. On another hand, if many macroscopic parameters, such as the percent solids of the pulp, its viscosity, or its mean residence time in the mill are known to be related to grinding efficiency, the link between these parameters and particle size distribution (PSD) is still unclear. Here, a methodology is established to understand the effect of ball mill operating conditions on particle size and shape distribution in the grinding process. The study focuses on the particular case of an Upper Group 2 (UG-2) platinum ore concentrator. Due to the very low grade of sulphide and PGM (Platinum group metals) in UG-2, grinding mechanisms are entirely control by gangue minerals. These two minerals have contrasted properties and PGM content and these properties immediately affect the entire recovery process. So, the grinding of both gangue minerals is studied on a size by size basis. At particle scale, three parameters are addressed: particle size, particle composition and particle shape. The specific behavior of chromite and silicate grains is demonstrated. As a conclusion, this study gives some clues to operate ball mills in a more efficient manner regarding chromite issue in the processing of UG-2. Keywords: ball milling control, UG-2, chromite, fine particle, particle shape, segregation

Sep 1, 2012

By Alexsandro Berger

Many thickener operations continue to be constrained by their ability to process consolidated underflows with high yield stress and associated rheological characteristics. To maximise separation efficiencies within a thickener operation the use of both engineering and reagents are always considered. BASF is developing a Novel Flocculant Technology (NFT), which combines both of these aspects to enhance the performance of the thickener operation, improving the areas of pumping efficiency, underflow density and throughput. The development progression through stages of laboratory scale batch test work to pilot scale dynamic testing has demonstrated the ability of BASF NFT to maintain effective flocculation performance whilst increasing the rate of underflow consolidation, and significantly reducing the associated underflow yield stress of the treated material. This paper will present application data through full scale dynamic testing conducted on a granite washing circuit to demonstrate the performance benefits that NFT offers to a thickener operation. Compared to the conventional flocculant treatment, within the operation parameters and conditions employed during the full scale trials, the NFT produced a reduction in underflow rheology (yield stress) of around 45 % relative to a given solids and improved the underflow consolidation by providing at least 20% relative higher underflow solids loading than the upper limit of the given typical thickener operation. Keywords: flocculation, thickener operation, rheology, yield stress, underflow density, throughput, slump test

Sep 1, 2012

By Minna Päällysaho

For the first time, the idea of sustainable development was recognised at a high political level at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (UNEP, 1992). Then the governments of the world committed themselves to promote sustainable development in their national activities and international co-operation. In 2001, the European Council approved the EU Strategy for Sustainable Development (European commission, 2011). This complements and supports the EU?s so-called Lisbon Strategy (European council, 2000) on competitiveness. The revised Strategy for Sustainable Development was approved in June 2006. Recently sustainability has had an important role in policy and decision-making while the public awareness towards limits of the environment has been rising. However, the indicators of industrial sustainability satisfy primarily the needs of corporate management and global investors. The information is often broad and non-specific and might occasionally even give a false impression. Moreover, contradictions between environmental, economical and social aspects also point out the unreliability of existing sustainability indexes. Therefore, the current state of affairs serves the interests of neither the industry nor the policy makers. Current corporate sustainability indexes and indicator systems need to be assessed with scientific methods encompassing the identification of their strengths and weaknesses. This requires quantitative and qualitative assessment and synthesis of existing indexes and indicator systems, providing new data on the functionality of existing corporate sustainability indicators. Therefore, the assessment lays the foundation for the development of new, more balanced sustainability index. Our first aim in this multidisciplinary article is to analyse existing global sustainability indexes for process industry. Second, we will introduce a first version of a new sustainability index for process industry, which includes the environmental, social and economic impacts of the plant, as well as legislation aspects.

Sep 1, 2012

By W. Kobal

The extraction of nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co) from the laterite deposit of Ramu nickel-cobalt Project in Papua New Guinea was performed in this study. Chemical analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-AES) atomic emission spectrometer, SPS-3000 (Seiko Instruments (Inc.), shows the ore contains 48% Fe, 1% Ni, 0.1% Co, 1.8% Al, 0.14% Mg, and 0.8% Mn. Characterization by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the laterite ore obtained from the mine site shows the ore contains 70 to 80% goethite (FeOOH), assuming Fe content of 48% is mainly from geothite. The main leaching parameters investigated include; slurry temperature, leaching time and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) concentration to evaluate nickel and cobalt extraction. For all experiments, 10g batch samples are put into 300 ml beaker containing 100 ml of sulphuric acid of varying concentrations (1M, 2M, 4M). During the leaching period, 5 ml slurry samples are withdrawn at different times and filtered to obtain filtrate for ICP analysis to monitor nickel and cobalt extraction. Solid samples at the end of all tests are also obtained by filtration and after drying, XRD and ICP tests are performed to monitor nickel and cobalt contents. According to the test results performed at normal atmospheric pressure, over 99% of nickel and over 50% cobalt were extracted into solution within 120 min at 95ºC in 2M H2SO4 solution. Similar results were obtained when only temperature was reduced to 90ºC, but cobalt extraction increased to over 70% when leaching time was increased to 240 min. Further reduction in temperature to 80 and 60ºC resulted in reduction of nickel and cobalt extraction. At the end of each leaching test, magnetite was seen to attach to magnetic stirrer. The study showed nickel can be completely leached into solution but cobalt only up to 70%. Keywords: atmospheric pressure, sulphuric acid leaching, nickel laterite

Sep 1, 2012

Three high-grade limestone ores (CaO content over than 53 %) with different geological origin have been characterized for the synthesis of aragonite precipitated calcium carbonate. Limestone ores examined in this study showed different crystal particle size that cause difference in disintegration degree and surface area of the synthesized slaked limes. The limestone ore with smaller crystal particle size showed higher disintegration degree and also yielded slaked lime with smaller surface area, which is good for the synthesis of aragonite precipitated calcium carbonate. The synthesis of aragonite PCC using the limestone with a small crystal particle size was yielded needle-shaped aragonite with the aspect ratio of about 14. Keywords: limestone, lime, slaked lime, precipitated calcium carbonate, aragonite, accelerated carbonation

Sep 1, 2012

By R. K. Rath

The low-grade iron ore sample contains both lumps and fines. It is mostly hematitic iron ore and considerable amount of goethitic/limonitic material is present in it. The major impurities present were quartz and clay. It is observed that the iron bearing phases are poorly liberated above 300 µm and the liberation improves below 300 µm. More than 80% liberation is achieved below 106 µm. Based on the liberation data, the feed for the different beneficiation methods was prepared by stage crushed the ROM followed by grinding passing to 106µm and the ground material (-106µm) was deslimed. The underflow was subjected to various beneficiation techniques such as tabling, enhanced gravity separator (EGS), wet high intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS), and flotation and the results are discussed. All the methods studied could able to produce pellet grade concentrate with iron content of 64.5%, however, a marginal higher yield was observed for WHIMS (81%). Keywords: beneficiation, gravity, magnetic, enhanced gravity separation, flotation, low-grade iron ore, desliming

Sep 1, 2012

By F. Karakas

Water based paint formulations consist of some industrial minerals with quantities varying from 20 to 50 %. Quality of paint is directly related to these minerals used as pigment or filler in the production. Titanium dioxide is the most important and expensive pigment in paint formulations. Other minerals such as calcite and calcined kaolin are used as filler and mainly as a substitute for TiO2. Consequently, particle-particle interactions including adsorption, coating and size distribution of pigment mixture directly affects the paint quality. In the present paper, a new type of pigment mixture for possible use in architectural water based paints was developed through grinding. The effect of different types of grinding methods on physical properties of TiO2 and calcite mixture and the quality of paint produced by these mixtures have been revealed. Three different types of mills; conventional ball mill, vibratory ball mill and high-speed attritor were used for grinding of TiO2 and calcite. Viscosity, zeta potential and particle size distributions were used to characterize the pigment mixtures obtained upon grinding. The quality of paint was evaluated by standards based on both wet and dry paints such as viscosity, density, opacity and gloss. The paint produced with the pigment mixtures prepared in vibratory ball mill and high speed attritor showed improvement in physical properties particularly in the distribution and dispersion of mineral particles. Keywords: grinding, pigment, paint, TiO2, calcite

Sep 1, 2012