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By A. Becker, R. Tait, S. L. George, A. Carlisle

Surface treatments like laser shock peening (LSP) induce residual stresses penetrating up to 1 mm deep, surpassing traditional methods, thus significantly increasing the potential impact on materials prevalent in the automotive and aerospace sectors. Through extensive fatigue testing and fractography investigations, it was determined that LSP resulted in a fatigue life increase of over five times for aluminium alloy AA7075-T6 and titanium Ti-6Al-4V. Increased fatigue life was also noted in AISI316 stainless steel, which showed increases in fatigue life of 1.7x. While fatigue life in all cases improved, the efficacy of LSP was shown to be material dependent.

Jul 23, 2025

By J. L. Havenga

South Africa produces about 400 Kt zircon (ZrSiO4) per annum. This represents about 30 percent of the global demand. However, very little is beneficiated locally and more than 95 percent is exported with little or no value addition. Zircon is a very inert material and needs to undergo high-temperature alkaline melting processes to produce valuable zirconium products. The conversion of zircon to plasma-dissociated zircon (PDZ) produces a chemically reactive species (ZrO2.SiO2) which consist of finely divided submicron monoclinic ZrO2 crystals dispersed in a SiO2 matrix. In this paper, an in-flight, non-transferred arc pilot plasma plant with a capacity of 100 kg/h and which consists of three 150 kW DC plasma torches, is described. The optimization of the plant, which includes the use of different zircon concentrates, the influence of particle size, feed rates, plasma gas, and energy utilization, is discussed.

Jan 1, 2012

By R. Haldenwang, R. Erasmus, P. T. Slatter, R. P. Chhabra

Notches are used routinely for measuring the flow rate of water with free surface flows. As far as can be ascertained, no work has been done to investigate the performance of these flow rate measurement devices for non-Newtonian suspensions. The Flow Process Research Centre at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology has investigated the flow rate of kaolin and bentonite suspensions from a tank for two notch shapes, namely rectangular and triangular, and for 3 different concentrations of each suspension. The notches were calibrated using water and then the kaolin and bentonite suspensions were tested in them. The rheological characterisation of the fluids was done with a Paar Physica MC-1 rotary viscometer fitted with a cup and roughened bob. Analysis of the results shows a significant increase in discharge coefficient with increase in concentration, and the discharge coefficient has been correlated to the yield stress. This is the first such study, and further investigation is needed to confirm and extend these findings.

Jan 1, 2007

By E. Bakhtavar, R. Mikaeil, D. Khademi

"Fuzzy-weighted integer goal programming has been developed and used to select the most suitable site to construct a central processing plant for several adjacent small-scale dimension stone quarries, based on the most effective criteria. In the first step of mathematical modelling, the most important goals and decision variables were defined. Accordingly, an objective function was used in the model for minimizing the sum of undesired fuzzy-weighted deviations. Fuzzy weights were determined by a matrix of pairwise comparisons of various expert judgments in this field and the fuzzy geometric mean. The goal and systemic constraints were also modelled. The most suitable site for the construction of the plant was selected after solving the mathematical model in the ExcelR Solver add-in. The selected site had various advantages over the other sites, such as the shortest average distance to the quarries, the shortest distance to power access and workforce, and the lowest land price. IntroductionSelection of the most suitable site of a plant is one of the most important considerations when constructing an industrial project. A suitable site has a significant effect on a company's competitiveness in the market. Selecting a desirable location for constructing plants such as mineral processing facilities is an essential part of the economic planning that will enable a company to meet the needs of related upstream and downstream operations. These units are considered to be best built near the relevant mining sites because of technical difficulties, the cost of transporting minerals, and the traffic hazard caused by the movement of trucks transporting materials. Two main types of research using multiattribute decision-making models have been reported for selection of a processing plant site (Safari et al. 2010, 2012). In that research, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and fuzzy technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) approach were applied to select the suitable locations for the mineral processing plants for phases 1 and 2 of Sangan iron ore mine."

Jan 1, 2017

By J. A. C. Diering

All underground openings are three-dimensional, and in many cases it is not valid to analyse two-dimensional sections. This has been a problem in the past owing to the magnitude and complexity of three-dimensional stress analysis. In this paper a three-dimensional boundary element approach, using non-conforming quadratic elements, which is specifically applicable to underground excavations, is described. In addition, the philosophy of application of stress analyses is discussed. Three case histories are presented to demonstrate the practical nature of the approach as a tool in solving mining problems.

Jan 1, 1987

By B. P. Watson

In South Africa, the Bushveld platinum group metal deposits are unique in that they are the largest platinum group metal deposits in the world. These deposits occur as two distinct stratiform tabular orebodies and strike for many hundreds of kilometres. Mining is extensive, with depths ranging from close-to-surface to 2 000 m. The mining method is a variation of planar open stoping. Pillars are widely used to support the open stopes. Crush pillars are commonly used in this role, where the residual pillar strength provides the required support resistance to stabilize the stoping excavations. This paper describes the direct measurement of stress within these crush pillars, and describes the stress?strain behaviour of these pillars. These findings indicate that the measured pillar failure stress is too high. The implications of these findings are that roof damage and pillar bursting could occur, and some examples of this type of damage are shown. The paper concludes that this problem could be mitigated if the three dimensional pillar geometry were modified and the pillars were cut smaller.

Jan 1, 2007

By L. C. Woollacott

A computer-aid is described that is designed to calculate steady-state material balances for ore-dressing circuits. The program determines the material balance from a specification of the process condition. No mathematical models or data adjustment techniques are employed. As such the program complements existing simulation and material balance 'smoothing' packages. The process condition is specified using performance indicators. These are significant parameters in the industry with which all practising mineral processors are very familiar. The program employs an equation-oriented technique for material balancing and so has had to deal with the difficulties peculiar to that approach.

Jan 1, 1987

By Paul Fouchè, Danie van der Merwe

Contents ?Purpose ?Introduction ?Development of RF tracers ?Test procedure ?Results ?Conclusion ?Way forward ?Acknowledgements

Jan 1, 2005

By J. Jacob

Diamondiferous linear beaches in Mining Area No. 1 have been the mainstay of Namdeb?s diamond production for more than 80 years. Most of the onshore beaches have been mined out, but in recent years mining has been extended offshore into the surf zone through a process of beach accretion. A total of 61.6 million carats has been produced from the gravel beaches since their discovery in 1928, and Mining Area No. 1 is considered to have great remaining potential from areas currently submerged under water. To date, the surf zone has remained largely unexplored due to the consistently strong winds, currents, and large waves which make access to this area extremely difficult. This paper describes the processes used in developing a practical methodology for exploration of the surf zone in a domain extending approximately 22 km long in a northwest?southeast direction and 0.3 km wide in a perpendicular direction adjacent to the current Mining Area No 1. The vigorous surf zone poses multiple technical challenges in terms of obtaining geological and diamond information. In order to access the area for sampling, a jack-up walking probe drill platform (PDP) with a 5-inch diameter reverse-circulation drill has been developed to carry out exploration drilling in the dynamic surf zone. The hydraulically driven platform has eight legs, each of which is 18 m long. Four of the legs are in fixed positions on the fore and aft sides of the platform. The other four moveable legs are fitted to sliding frames attached to the port and starboard sides of the platform. The sets of fixed and moveable legs can be raised and lowered by hydraulically powered jacking stations. By alternately lifting and lowering the sets of fixed and moveable legs in conjunction with the frames moving back and forth horizontally, a walking action is performed by the PDP. The platform can walk at a speed of 10?15 m/h, depending on weather and footwall conditions. Optimization of sampling for diamondiferous gravel occurrence in Mining Area No.1 was undertaken through creation of a virtual orebody on which different sample configurations were tested. The input data for the construction of a virtual orebody comprises a set of drilling data, collected from recently accreted areas directly adjacent to the 22 km × 0.3 km target domain. The input drilling data covers only 34% of the domain, and for the purpose of this study, a single realization is deemed to be sufficient. The texture obtained from using only the drilling data to construct a simulation did not make geological sense; hence it was necessary to make use of analog data in order to improve the simulation. The first analog data used consists of the gully patterns found in the metasedimentary Precambrian bedrock footwall. Gullies are, in general, gravel filled and it is fair to assume that gully patterns form a subset of the total gravel occurrence. Total gravel occurrence includes marine terraces (governed by sealevel stands) above bedrock peaks, together with gravel within gullies below bedrock peaks. The second analog ?data? introduced is through the use of ?expert interpretation?. The indicator drilling data is interpreted by expert opinion and the 2-dimensional result is hand-sketched, digitized, and then pixelated. The pixelated data set is then used as input for variogram calculation. This study cannot provide a single definite optimization result as the nature of the data does not permit this. The use of different validation approaches (conditioning data, where available; expert interpretation; and gully pattern data), however, can give a very good indication of how to balance sampling effort with de-risking aspects related to geological continuity. Work undertaken by sampling the simulation will give an assessment of the relative probabilities of determining gravel occurrence in the study area. This study showed that a 50 m × 400 m cross-configuration will be a good initial sample spacing for highlighting areas where gravel may be absent, and further infill drilling may be required. The relative efficiency of a 50 m × 400 m cross off-set sampling configuration has been demonstrated using a trumpet curve versus sampling effort when using kriging as the estimation method. Keywords sampling configuration, marine diamonds, orebody simulation.

Jan 1, 2014

By John Taylor

?Introduction to Black Mountain ?Historical metal accounting practice ?Metal accounting audit ?Feed measurement ?Sample precision ?Concentrate measurment ?Current metal accounting practice ?Further refinements to the metal accounting practice

Jan 1, 2005

By J. Rowe

The attrition of activated carbon, and the loss of gold associated with it, is of significant economic importance to the operation of a CIP/CIL circuit The focus of this study was on activated carbon recovered from an elution circuit which was deemed too fine for reuse. Results of cyclosizer and laser particle size analysis identified that most of the carbon was contained in the larger size fraction suggesting formation by abrasion. Digestion and AAS analysis of the individual size fractions identified a disproportionate concentration of gold in the finer size fractions which was identified by scanning electron microscopy to be due to the presence of fine metallic gold formed as a result of the acid washing process. Attempts to strip the remaining gold using sodium hydroxide or sodium sulphide based solutions proved unsuccessful due to poor elution efficiencies and re adsorption of gold. Upgrading of the material by froth flotation was also investigated using various conventional flotation reagents which had some success in concentrating the free metallic gold, however, grade and/or recoveries were considered less than desirable. Greater success was ultimately found in the transfer of gold from the fine carbon material onto coarser virgin activated carbon using a caustic cyanide solution. Sodium sulphide, sodium chloride and ammonium chloride based solutions were also trialled but proved less successful owing to their inability to mobilise metallic gold or gold cyanide species. Repetition of the transfer process proved capable of stripping 97% of the gold contained on the carbon fines for abed volume ratio of 6:1.

Jan 1, 2009

By A. M. Venter

"SynopsisThe availability of advanced characterization techniques is integral to the development of advanced materials, not only during development phases, but in the manufactured components as well. At Necsa, two modern neutron diffractometers equipped with in-situ sample environments, as well as complementary X-ray diffraction instruments, are now available as User Facilities within the National System of Innovation in support of the South African research and industrial communities. Neutrons and X-rays, owing to their different interaction mechanisms with matter, offer complementary techniques for probing crystalline materials. Both techniques enable nondestructive investigation of phenomena such as chemical phase composition, residual stress, and texture (preferred crystallite orientation). More specifically, the superior penetration capabilities of thermal neutrons into most materials allows for the analysis of bulk or localized depth-resolved properties in a wide variety of materials and components. Materials that can be investigated include metals, alloys, composites, ceramics, and coated systems. In particular, depth-resolved analyses using neutron diffraction complements surface investigations using laboratory X-rays in many scientific and engineering topics. The diffraction techniques can add significant downstream value to the anticipated nuclear industry development activities.IntroductionMaterials characterization is central in understanding the relationship between the structure, properties, and performance in order to engineer materials that fit the performance criteria for specific applications. This is conveniently represented in the form of a tetrahedron, generally known as the material science paradigm (Figure 1).The availability of advanced characterization techniques is integral to the development of advanced metals, not only during development phases, but in the form of manufactured components. At Necsa (South African Nuclear Energy Corporation), modern X-ray and neutron diffraction instruments are now accessible to the South African research and industrial communities. These facilities enable nondestructive investigations of materials and components that could add significant downstream value to the anticipated nuclear industry development activities."

Jan 1, 2015

By Timo Niitti, Antti Rinne, Janne Turunen, Klaus Schommarz, Sami Grönstrand

This paper captures the essential steps employed in developing Outotec?s new FloatForceTM mechanism. The development of a flotation mechanism essentially revolves around the efficient transfer of installed power, or capital cost, to optimum flotation performance. Optimum flotation performance will be achieved if a balance between metallurgical results, operating and capital costs is maintained. The development of the FloatForceTM mechanism was done by careful evaluation of each of these three areas. This paper focuses on how experience, CFD and laboratory equipment, pilot and plant tests are used to test and evaluate a new flotation mechanism. Validated variables include mixing profile, power draw and local air hold-up. Metallurgical and mechanical design considerations are not covered in this paper. Besides using the FloatForceTM mechanism in new flotation equipment, the FloatForceTM mechanism can be used in existing flotation cell installations, thus enabling improvements in the mixing profiles, solids suspension and metallurgical performance of operating flotation circuits. Results of several tests carried out in existing plant operations are presented.

Jan 1, 2007

By J. L. Havenga

South Africa produces about 400 Kt zircon (ZrSiO4) per annum. This represents about 30 percent of the global demand. However, very little is beneficiated locally and more than 95 percent is exported with little or no value addition. Zircon is a very inert material and needs to undergo high-temperature alkaline melting processes to produce valuable zirconium products. The conversion of zircon to plasma-dissociated zircon (PDZ) produces a chemically reactive species (ZrO2.SiO2) which consist of finely divided submicron monoclinic ZrO2 crystals dispersed in a SiO2 matrix. In this paper, an in-flight, non-transferred arc pilot plasma plant with a capacity of 100 kg/h and which consists of three 150 kW DC plasma torches, is described. The optimization of the plant, which includes the use of different zircon concentrates, the influence of particle size, feed rates, plasma gas, and energy utilization, is discussed.

Jan 1, 2012

By L. P. Fatti

An important feature affecting the classification of a remotely sensed scene is that the data are, in general, spatially correlated. Various approaches are discussed towards incorporating the correlation between neighbouring pixels when they are classified on the basis of their spectral reflectance data.

Jan 1, 1987

By M. Pierce, E. Karampinos

"One of the main challenges in the numerical modelling of ground support in underground excavations is to reproduce the performance of the sequential installation of the reinforcement while capturing the rock mass behaviour of an advancing face in 3D. The 3D modelling approaches used to simulate the progressive advance of excavations are mostly continuum and often cannot reproduce the rock mass failure mechanisms. The 3D discrete element method (DEM) can better reproduce structurally controlled rock mass failure mechanisms and can explicitly represent the reinforcement elements. This paper builds on previous work that reproduced the structurally controlled squeezing conditions in an underground hard-rock mine using 3D DEM and the in situ behaviour of reinforcement under pull conditions. It addresses important issues on the way reinforcement is explicitly introduced in discrete element models. A pseudo-3D model is employed to overcome the computational restrictions and time limitations of a 3D modelling approach. The work focuses on the scaling of the material properties of the ground support elements when the thickness of the model is not equal to the out-of-plane spacing of reinforcement. It demonstrates the scaling methodology based on the type of the modelled reinforcement elements used and investigates the significance of this approach. The advantages and disadvantages of this approach with respect to 2D and 3D methods are discussed. The results are compared with field data and previous modelling work done at the mine. IntroductionNumerical models can provide significant insight into the anticipated behaviour of underground excavations. The modelling of ground support, however, is not a trivial exercise. An effective representation of ground support in underground excavations should capture the behaviour of both the rock mass and the support elements. When numerical models are used for design purposes, the complexity of the problem requires significant time and expertise (Sweby, Dight, and Potvin, 2016).At a laboratory scale, numerical models have successfully reproduced the results of laboratory tests on rockbolts by explicit modelling of the bolt, the borehole, and the grout. Chen and Li (2015) used a continuum FLAC3D (Itasca Consulting Group Inc., 2012) model to simulate the mechanical behaviour of D-bolts as observed experimentally. Grasselli (2005) used a 3D finite element code to model the behaviour of fully grouted rods and expandable bolts under shear."

Dec 1, 2018

By H. Wagner

It is a great privilege for me to have been asked to present the closing address to this most successful symposium on backfill in the South African mining industry. When I accepted this invitation I did not fully appreciate the tremendous progress made on most aspects of backfilling in the last few years. The number and quality of papers presented at this symposium bear testimony to the mining industry's determination and success in introducing backfill in underground mines to improve strata control and environmental conditions, and to provide better protection to mineworkers against the hazards of rockbursts and rockfalls. Many contributions demonstrated that these benefits can be achieved at a reasonable cost, and in some instances improved grade and higher rate of face advance result in improved economics. In my closing address I will attempt to summarize the progress made in the various aspects of backfilling underground workings and to identify those areas which, in my opinion, require further attention and effort. I will undertake this review under the following main headings: ? fundamentals of backfilling; ? design of backfill systems; ? operation of backfill systems; ? control of backfill systems; and other aspects of backfill systems.

Jan 1, 1988

By F. Reyes, M. Hilden, G. Forbes, M. Yahyaei

Since AlphaGo defeated the best human player in the game of Go in 2016 - something thought to be an impossible achievement - machine learning, deep learning and reinforcement learning have caught the attention of scientists, the media and the general public alike. This recent development in machine learning (let us remember that neural networks have been available for decades now) opens new possibilities in the areas of modelling and process control. However, little has been reported in the minerals processing industry about these new possibilities and opportunities. This paper presents and introduces the topic of reinforcement learning and the different platforms that allow its implementation. The paper shows the consequences of using reinforcement learning for the specific area of process control and optimisation. As an example, the authors present the use of reinforcement learning for the control of a SAG mill closed with a pebble crusher using industrial data from an operation. A comparison with advanced model-based process control is provided, showing the benefits and shortcomings of reinforcement learning as a new control and optimisation technique. Keywords: Reinforcement learning, deep learning, process control, process optimisation

Jan 1, 2020

By J. W. Neale

Mintek was a leading participant in the BioMinE project between 2004 and 2008. This project, which was funded in part by the European Commission, was aimed at the development of biotechnology for the minerals industry in Europe. Mintek?s research programme focused mainly on the development of integrated bioleach-based processes for the recovery of base metals from complex, low-grade sulphide concentrates. Specific European mineral resources were targeted and used in integrated piloting campaigns involving bioleaching, solution purification, and metals recovery. This paper describes the use of thermophilic bioleaching for the recovery of nickel and copper from a low-grade nickel-copper concentrate produced at the Aguablanca Mine in southern Spain. Currently, the Aguablanca Mine produces a bulk nickel-copper concentrate for sale to a smelter, and the proposition is to increase the profitability of the operation by the on-site production of metal or metal intermediate. Initially, bench-scale bioleach tests were conducted to determine the bioleach operating conditions. These tests included an evaluation of mesophilic, moderately thermophilic and thermophilic microorganisms. In order to achieve sufficiently high levels of both copper and nickel extraction, a thermophilic process was selected?this was necessary for leaching of the refractory chalcopyrite that occurs in this concentrate. Additional bench-scale test work was carried out to derive a conceptual process flowsheet for the solution purification and metals recovery circuit. The results of the bench-scale tests were used to design, construct and commission an integrated pilot plant, which was subsequently operated at Mintek for over seven months. During this time, the solution purification and metals recovery processes were optimized, and all recycle loops were closed. The final process flowsheet included the following unit operations: concentrate regrinding, thermophilic bioleaching at 70°C, primary iron removal using limestone, copper solvent extraction and electrowinning, secondary iron removal, nickel hydroxide precipitation using magnesia, and final solution purification using lime. Where applicable, process solutions were recycled to preserve water. The process design data derived from this pilot-plant campaign formed the basis for a conceptual engineering study for the developed process. In the study, mass and energy balances were derived, and a process flowsheet was developed and used as the basis for estimating the capital and operating costs of the process. This enabled a preliminary economic analysis of the process to be undertaken. The findings of this study are discussed.

Jan 1, 2009

By P. Kitobo, T. Nduba, D. Mbay, J. B. Vangu, R. Ciband

The flotation plant tailings at Kamoa Copper Mine concentrator were found to contain a high proportion of extremely fine particles. The potential issues with settling these fine solids were resolved by the use of a poly-di-allyl-di-methyl ammonium chloride (DADMAC) coagulant, Flobead DB 45 VHM, in conjunction with a standard anionic polyacrylamide flocculant. This paper outlines some of the issues encountered and how they were resolved at the Kamoa concentrator. The potential to use this process and technology at other sites is also considered

Jan 1, 2023