Search Documents

By R. E. Wade

The Butte, Anaconda & Pacific electrification is of peculiar interest, in an incidental way, to the entire mining fraternity, and especially the engineering branch, not only in this great Northwest country but throughout the entire Western mining country, which is rich in minerals and water power. It is probably fair to say that the prime object of mining and smelting engineering is to reduce the cost of production, and in the case in hand the relative location of mines and smelter brings the cost of transportation of ore to the front. While some might assign this item to the railway people, it is inseparably a part and parcel of the general scheme of the production of metal from the ore. In considering the electrification of the B., A. & P. railway the mining and smelting engineer, above all, wants to know what saving will be effected by the change in motive power. Unfortunately the new power has been in use during a very limited period and on the Smelter Hill section of the road only, and no reliable data, from actual service conditions, can be obtained until the entire electrified section has been in service for a reasonable length of time. Any remarks on this subject at the present time, therefore, must of necessity be general in nature and more or less descriptive. The railway, electrical and mining worlds and the country in general are indebted to the B., A. & P. railway for the pioneer work it is now doing, as it undoubtedly marks the beginning of the electrification, within the comparatively near future, of all transcontinental roads between the Missouri river and the Pacific coast. Together with this goes the development of an untold wealth in water power and all natural resources within the same territory. For the first time in the history of electric railway work, in this country, direct current at a potential of 2,400 volts is being used. With this potential there is a great saving in transmission of energy to the locomotives and there are only two substations, one at either end and 26 miles apart, for supplying the power for the movement of trains of heavy tonnage over the main line and for switching movements at terminal and intermediate yards, and comparatively little feeder copper is required.

Jan 1, 1914

By George F. Becker

A Nere record of Emmons's professional career would very inadequately represent the man. That he was eminent mc know, and our successors will realize in due time; but they must depend upon us for knowledge of a singularly ~vholesome, modest, unselfish personality, and of a character that did honor to a profession in which trustworthiness is indispensable. Those members of the Institute who met Emmons are his friends, and I never knew .one of these who was not the better for that friendship. Emmons was born in Boston, Mar. 29, 1841, the son of Xathaniel H. and Elizabeth (Wales) Emmons, and was named Samuel Frankliri after an ancestor who was of the sarne family as Benjamin Franklin. He took the degrcc of Bachelor of Arts at Harvard in 1861, and soon afterwards went abroad to complete his education. From 1862 to 1864 he attended the courses at the fieole Impkriale des Mines at Paris, Elie de Beaumont arid Daubrke being among his professors. The year 1864-1865 he spent at Freiberg under Cotta and other famous teachers; after which he spent another year in traveling through Europe. Like many other renowned geologists, he approached his ultimate profession from its economic side, and was thus from the first imbued with a sense of high responsibility in the promulgation of scientific opinions or conclusions. With hypotheses which were interesting merely because they were ingenious or even plausible, he would have nothing to do. In 1867 he joined the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel at its organization under Clarence King, serving at first as a volunteer, but soon receiving a regular appointment. This expedition was the first one of purely geological character sent out by the United States government. As Emmons has shown in his admirable presidential address on " The Geology of Government Explorations," its work was founded on a com-

Jan 1, 1912

By C. W. Allen, L. C. Moore

THE Mather mine, of the Negaunee Mine Co., is within the limits of the City of Ishpeming, on the Marquette iron- range in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. It is named for William G. Mather, who has served as President, and Chairman of the Board, of The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. for well over 50 years. The property comprises nearly the square mile of section 2, T.47 N. R.27 W., which, except for 20 acres in the northeast corner, was leased by The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. to the Negaunee company. The latter is a partnership of Cleveland-Cliffs and the Bethlehem Steel Co., organized to equip the property, retaining Cliffs in charge as operator. Shipments of ore from this area are mainly through Marquette, which is 16 miles to the northeast on Lake Superior, or through Escanaba, a Lake Michigan port, 65 miles to the south. Cleveland-Cliffs, in 1943, operated 12 mines in the Lake Superior district, with shipments of 6,635,576 tons for the year. GEOLOGY The north footwall of the Marquette Range synclinorium outcrops near the north line of sec. 2, the iron formation dipping to the south at an angle of about 40º. The south side of the trough reappears at a distance of 4 ½ miles on sec. 26 and the surface geology between shows iron formation or intrusive diorites. The latter are harder than most phases of the iron formation and, as a result of glacial action, appear as buttes or low-lying hills. The general elevation of sec. 2 is about 1450 ft. above sea level, or 850ft. above Lake Superior, and the higher diorite outcroppings about 1600 ft. above sea level. The geological structure has been complicated by a series of major and minor faults, one of which may be illustrated by the diorite sheet, which tilts south with the iron formation in the north half of the section and then reappears near the center to repeat this sequence. Sectionally the geological series includes a nearly eroded capping of Goodrich quartzite followed by the considerable thickness of Negaunee iron formation, which is cut by intrusive dikes or diorite sheets, and underlain by the Siamo slates grading into quartzites. The ore deposits occur mainly in troughs formed by the intersection of impervious dikes and the footwall slate, but include locally enriched lenses or bands in the iron formation and also interbedded with the Siamo slate. The ore is a soft red hematite with an indicated dried analysis from the surface drilling to date of 61.50 per cent Fe, 0.134 per cent P, 5.40 per cent Si, 2.87 per cent Al and 0.015 per cent S. EXPLORATION A diamond-drilling campaign started in 1937 actually had its inception in 1917, when a number of shallow test holes were put down for the purpose of locating ore that might be quickly developed and mined

Jan 1, 1945

By C. W. Allen, L. C. Moore

The Mather mine, of the Negaunee Mine Co., is within the limits of the City of Ishpeming. on the Marquette iron range in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. It is named for William G. Mather, who has served as President, and Chairman of the Board, of The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. for well over 50 years. The property comprises nearly the square mile of section 2, T.47 N. R.27 W., which, except for 20 acres in the northeast corner, was leased by The Cleve-land-cliffs Iron Co. to the Negaunee company. The latter is a partnership of Cleveland-Cliffs and the Bethlehem Steel Co., organized to equip the property, retaining Cliffs in charge as operator. Shipments of ore from this area are mainly through Marquette, which is 16 miles to the northeast on Lake Superior, or through Escanaba, a Lake Michigan port, 65 miles to the south. Cleveland-Cliffs, in 1943, operated 12 mines in the Lake Superior district, with shipments of 6,635,576 tons for the year. Geology The north footwall of the Marquette Range synclinorium outcrops near the north line of set. 2, the iron formation dipping to the south at an angle of about 40. The south side of the trough reappears at a distance of 4J5 miles on sec. 26 and the surface geology between shows iron forma- tion or intrusive diorites. The latter are harder than most phases of the iron formation and, as a result of glacial action, appear as buttes or low-lying hills. The general elevation of sec. 2 is about 1450 ft. above sea level, or 850 ft. above Lake Superior, and the higher diorite outcroppings about 1600 ft. above sea level. The geological structure has been complicated by a series of major and minor faults, one of which may be illustrated by the diorite sheet, which tilts south with the iron formation in the north half of the section and then reappears near the center to repeat this sequence. Sectionally the geological series includes a nearly eroded capping of Goodrich quartzite followed by the considerable thickness of Negaunee iron formation, which is cut by intrusive dikes or diorite sheets, and underlain by the Siamo slates grading into quartzites. The ore deposits occur mainly in troughs formed by the intersection of impervious dikes and the footwall slate, but include locally enriched lenses or bands in the iron formation and also interbedded with the Siamo slate. The ore is a soft red hematite with an indicated dried analysis from the surface drilling to date of 61.50 per cent Fe, 0.134 Per cent P, 5.40 per cent Si, 2-87 Per cent A1 and 0.015 per cent S. Exploration A diamond-drilling campaign started in 1937 actually had its inception in 1917, when a number of shallow test holes were put down for the purpose of locating ore that might be quickly developed and mined

Jan 1, 1946

By John C. Smock

The rich deposits of magnetic iron-ore in the Highlands of northern New Jersey attracted the attention of iron-workers at the time of the earliest settlements in that region. The outcrops of the oreshoots at the Dickerson mine, at Mount Hope, and at Hibernia, in Morris county, and at Ringwood, in Passaic count,y, which were doubtless such as would lead to discovery, location and development of nearly all the large iron-mines in that part of the State, appear to have had their beginnings where the ore cropped out on the surface or where it was scarcely concealed by a thin mantle of earth. In the early history of New Jersey iron-mining, the careful explorations and surveys made by the agents of the famous London Com-

Jan 1, 1892

By J. W. H. Clare

An equilibrium isotherm at 550°C is given for ternary alloys rich in aluminum containing 0 to 15 wt pct Cr and 0 to 20 wt pct Mn. Phases encountered are: aluminum solid solution; stable temary compound G; and MnAl8,. In addition, a limited number of alloys were annealed at 450°C to check for differences from the 550°C isotherm. These experiments limited the composition of the G phase at 550°C and further experiments established that the G Dhase is not stable above 590 ± 1 °C. RAYNOR and Little1 established several equilibrium isotherms using aluminum-rich alloys containing up to 5 pct of the elements chromium and manganese. These isotherms showed that, in addition to an a solid solution and the two binary intermediate compounds 8 and MnAl6, a stable ternary compound ex-isted in the system. This phase was called the G phase because of its ghostly appearance in micro-sections. Little, Raynor, and Hume-Rothery2 found a similar phase in binary aluminum-manganese alloys and, as a result of their experiments, concluded that the G phase was a metastable phase existing in the aluminum-manganese system. This phase was stabilized by the addition of chromium. The constitutional work of Raynor and Little,' although showing the existence of the G phase in the aluminum-chromium-manganese system, did not establish precisely the composition limits of the phase or the temperature above which the phase became unstable and disappeared from the system. The work described in this paper was undertaken to provide this information. An examination of the previous work' showed that an isotherm at 550°C would provide the required data regarding composition in the shortest possible time, as the (a + G) phase field narrows considerably at higher temperatures. The same work showed that the G phase ceased to exist between 580° and 595°C. A more precise estimate of the transformation temperature would therefore be obtained by annealing selected alloys at successively higher temperatures beginning at 580°C. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1) Materials Used—The experimental alloys were prepared from four master alloys containing 15.00 w pct Cr, 15.28 wt pct Cr, 19.80 wt pct Mn, and 19.38 wt pct Mn which were made from super-purity aluminum, electrolytic chromium, and electrolytic manganese. The aluminum was of 99.996 pct purity, the principal impurities being copper, iron, and silicon. The chromium and manganese were 99.9 pct pure, the principal impurities being antimony, calcium, and magnesium. 2) Preparation of the Experimental Alloys—The alloys were prepared in 20-g quantities by melting together the requisite amounts of master alloy and aluminum in an alumina-lined crucible and, after thorough stirring with an alumina rod, cast into a cold copper mold to give ingots 1/4 in. in diam and 3 in. in length.

Jan 1, 1960

By Bert S. Sandell

Much has been said and written about the various uses of die castings, their applications in the various industries and their advantages and disadvantages. Examination of this literature, however, fails to disclose any data concerning the effect of temperature upon any of the physical properties of die-casting alloys. The uses and applications of die castings are so numerous, and of such a varied nature, that far too lengthy a manuscript would be required to list all of them. Brief mention of some specific cases will suffice to illustrate the temperature ranges in which certain die castings function. Automobile hardware, such as hub caps, door handles, radiator caps, etc., can be used as one example. Castings of this type are constantly exposed to varying climatic conditions, temperatures ranging from below zero to upwards of 100" F. Refrigerator parts, such as ice-cube trays, etc., form another example. Approaching the other temperature extreme, we encounter conditions such as are found in kitchens in which oven-heat indicator parts, cooking utensils, waffle grids, etc., embody use of die castings, where temperatures as high as 500" F. are often met with. Because of this variation in service temperatures, it was felt necessary to ascertain the effect of these temperatures upon the physical properties of die-casting alloys. The Charpy impact test was chosen first because of its simplicity, and because of the fact that brittleness is more likely to be objectionable in die castings than hardness or other physical properties. Alloys Investigated Two types of alloys were used in this investigation—zinc-base and aluminum-base alloys. Two alloys of each group were included. Those most generally employed in the industry at present were selected. Alloys A and B are of the same nominal composition, and correspond to A. S. T. M. alloy XXI, containing 4 per cent aluminum, 3 per cent copper, 0.1 per cent magnesium, and the balance zinc of 99.99 per cent

Jan 1, 1932

Temperatures in the Open-hearth Furnace. By Robert B. Sosman. (Metals Tech. Aug. 1948, T.P. 2435) Steelmaking Direct Oxidation in the Basic Open Hearth Process. By E. R. Hughes and F. G. Norris. (Metals Tech., June 1948, T.P. 2380) With discussion Operation of Oxygen-enriched Open-hearth Furnaces. By J. S. Marsh. (Metals Tech., Aug. 1948, T. P. 2416) With discussion Role of Thermochemical Factors in Basic Open Hearth Production Rate. By T. E. Brower and B. M. Larsen. (Metals Tech., Oct. 1948, T.P. 2451) Structure, Segregation and Solidihcation of Semikilled Steel Ingots. By M. Tenenbaum. (Metals Tech., Sept. 1947, T.P. 2273) With discussion The Origin of Silicate Inclusions in Basic Electric-arc-furnace Steel of Higher Carbon Contents. By Axel Hultgren. (Metals Tech., Aug. 1948, T.P. 2418) A Method for Determining the Origin of Surface Defects in Rolled Steel Products. By C. L. Meyette and V. L. Elliott. (Metals Terh., June 1948, T.P. 2368) With discussion Gases in Steel The Sampling and Analysis of Steel for Hydrogen. By G. Derge, W. Peifer and J. H. Richards. (Metals Tech., June 1948, T.P. 2362) With discussion Apparatus for the Hot-extraction Analysis for Hydrogen in Steel. By C E. Sims and G. .I. Moore. (Metals Tech., June 1948, T.P. 2369) With discussion A Quantitative Experimental Investigation of the Hydrogen and Nitrogen Contents of Steel during Commercial Melting. By C. E. Sims, G. A. Moore and D. W. Williams. (Metals Tech., Feb. 1948, T.P. 2347) With discussion The Effect of Hydrogen on the Ductility of Cast Steels. By C. E. Sims, G. A. Moore and D. W. Williams. (Metals Tech., Sept. 1948, T.P. 2454) Sulphur in Ironmaking Kinetics of the Transfer of Sulphur across a Slag-metal Interface. By Lo-ching Chang and K. Goldman. (Metals Tech., June 1948, T.P. 2367) With discussion Some Correlations between Variables Affecting Sulphur in Blast Furnace Iron. By T. E. Brower and B. M. Larsen. (Metals Tech., Sept. 1948, T.P. 2465) Tracer Study of Sulphur in the Coke Oven. By S. E. Eaton, R. W. Hyde and 11. S. Old. (Metals Tech., Sept. 1948, T.P. 2453) Transformation of Austenite Anisothermal Formation of Bainite and Proeutectoid Constituents in Steels. By Leonard D. Jaffe. (Metals Tech., Dec. 1947, T.P. 2290) With discussion Austenite Transformation Above and Within the Martensite Range. By R. T. Howard, Jr. and M. Cohen. (Metals Tech., Oct. 1947, T.P. 2283) With discussion

Jan 1, 1949

By G. R. Speich

The age-hardening of Fe-18 to 21 pct Ni marten-sites containing small amounts of titanium, aluminum, copper, or molybdenum has been studied by hardness measurements, transmission electron microscopy, extraction replicas, and X-ray and electron diffraction. Electyon-probe microanaly-sis of the extracted precipitates was also performed. The effects of temperature and composition on the aging kinetics have been studied in detail for Fe-20 pctNi-Ti martensites. All the martensites hardened on aging at 400" to 500 "C with a single aging peak. In the Fe-20 pct Ni-Ti martensites hardening was associated with the formation of a fine dispersion of NisTi. No precipitation was observed in an Fe-21 pct Ni-2.6 pct A1 alloy, although the hardness increased from 327 to 545 Dph during aging at 500°C. Copper was precgitated from an Fe-20 pct Ni-10.7pct Cu alloy, at least during the later stages of age-hardening. Hardening in an Fe-18 pctNi-5pct Mo alloy was associated with the precipitation of an intemzetallic compound tentatively identified as NisMo. The formation of austenite and the recovery of the defect structure of the martensite occur simultaneously with the normal precipitation processes &ring aging of these alloys. THE age-hardening of substitutional iron-base martensites is an important subject for study since age-hardening is one of the principal means of strengthening the substitutional iron-base martensites in precipitation-hardening stainless steels1 and maraging steels.a~4 In contrast to Fe-C martensites, these martensites are relatively soft and ductile in the as-quenched condition, due to the low solid-solution hardening effect of the substitutional elements as compared to carbon. Also, these martensites are hardened by aging at low temperatures in contrast to Fe-C martensites which generally soften on tempering. Titanium and aluminum, singly or in combination, as well as copper and molybdenum, have been the principal alloying additions to stainless steels to obtain an age-hardening reaction.' Ti-A1 or Co-Mo-Ti combinations have been used in the case of maraging steels.3"4 The present work has been confined to a study of the age-hardening characteristics of an Fe-18 to 21 pct Ni martensite to which small amounts of titanium, aluminum, copper, and molybdenum were added in order to study the effects of each alloying element separately. The age-hardening characteristics of these alloys were studied by hardness measurements, transmission electron microscopy, extraction replicas, and X-ray and electron diffraction. Electron-probe micro-analysis of the extracted precipitates was also performed. The types and dispersion of precipitates, the formation of austenite, and the recovery of the defect structure of the martensite all were studied. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Alloys. The compositions of the alloys studied are listed in Table I. The level of 18 to 21 pct Ni was chosen to assure complete transformation to martensite on quenching and is the same nickel level used in maraging steels. The concentrations of titanium, aluminum, copper, and molybdenum were chosen after a study of the and Fe-Ni-MO' ternary diagrams indicated how much of each alloying element could be dissolved in austenite. Alloys with 2 and 4 pct Cu were also studied, but these did not show precipitation hardening at the nickel levels studied and will not be discussed further. The alloys were prepared from electrolytic iron and high-purity* nickel, titanium, aluminum, copper, and molybdenum by vacuum melting of 20-lb heats. These were vacuum-cast into two 8-lb ingots. The ingots were hot-rolled at 1100°C to 1/2-in. plate and subsequently cut into 3/8-in. cubes. The cubes were sealed in evacuated quartz capsules and solution-treated for 16 hr at 1100°C, except for the Fe-20 pct Ni-10.7 pct Cu alloy and Fe-21 pct Ni-2.6 pct A1 alloys which were solution-treated for 16 hr at 1300" and at 1250"C, respectively. Metallographic examina-

Jan 1, 1963

By G. V. Cullen, N. G. Siviour

It has previously been reported that metal loadings of up to 6.8 m. eq/g. of dry coal can be obtained by contacting brown coal or lignite with ammoniacal solutions of ammine forming metals. Application of equilibrium expressions to further experimental results indicates that the extraction is by ion exchange, that the exchange is divalent-univalent for Zn, Cd and Ni, but is mainly univalent-univalent for Cu, and that to obtain reasonably uniform values for the equilibrium constants correction formulae must be applied to compensate for multiple functionality of the coal and its pH dependence in ion exchange. The results are shown to be consistent with the hypothesis that metal ammine complex cations are exchanged for protons derived from carboxyl and/or phenolic hydroxyl groups in the coal.

Jan 1, 1981

By E. H. Hamilton

THE furnace on which the following investigation was based had dimensions 48 by 160 in., and was in continuous operation during the three days of the test. The average charge consisted of PER CENT. LB. PER HOUR Bed ore?14.5?2,980 Roast from Dwight-Lloyds?44.5?9,160 Siliceous ore?3.5?720 Iron flux?2.1?430 Battery plates?0.5?103 Lime rock?23.9?4,925 Briquettes?4.0?825 Scrap iron?2.1?430 M. P. slag?4.2?865 L. P.speiss?0.7?142 Total 100.0 THE furnace on which the following investigation was based had dimensions 48 by 160 in., and was in continuous operation during the three days of the test. The average charge consisted of PER CENT. LB. PER HOUR Bed ore?14.5?2,980 Roast from Dwight-Lloyds?44.5?9,160 Siliceous ore?3.5?720 Iron flux?2.1?430 Battery plates?0.5?103 Lime rock?23.9?4,925 Briquettes?4.0?825 Scrap iron?2.1?430 M. P. slag?4.2?865 L. P.speiss?0.7?142 Total?100.0?20,580

Jan 1, 1924

By R. D. Carnahan, G. A. Stone, R. J. Arsenault

An experimental technique has been developed for carrying out a dynamic tensile stress-strain test in which plastic strain is measured continuously throughout the microstrain region extending through the macroflow region to total deformations of 5 pet. The tests were carried out on niobium, samples having interstitial impurity levels of 160 and -800 ppm at temperatures ranging from room temperature down to 100°K. A band spectrum of activation energies was obtained from calculations based on the measured activation volumes and temperature dependence of flow stress. The inability of a single rate-controlling process to predict such a phenomenon has led to the proposal that several sequential rate-controlling dislocation mechanisms are operative in the preyield micro-strain region. These are thought to be: the motion of geometrical kinks, the formation of double kinks in edges, and finally in the macrostrain region the formation of double kinks in screws. In less pure niobium the effect of interstitial impurities is shown to be dominant in the microstrain region, suggesting that a fourth probable mechanism is overcoming interstitial barriers instead of geometrical kink motion and the formation of double kinks in edge dislocations. THE principal fundamental aim of most mechanical properties studies of crystalline solids is to determine the dislocation mechanisms responsible for the plastic behavior. The extension of such studies to the region of preyield microstrain behavior has received renewed attention in the past few years as the details of macroscopic flow behavior have become better understood. For the most part, microstrain studies have been carried out using one of two variations of a single experimental technique.1 The first method involves loading the sample at a constant extension rate to a predetermined stress level (less than the macroscopic yield stress), instantaneously unloading, and then determining the extent of plastic deformation to a sensitivity of 10"6. The microscopic stress-strain curve is then constructed from the results of a repeated series of such individual measurements, each of which involves loading to an incrementally higher stress level, by relating the accumulated plastic microstrain for each step to the maximum applied stress in that step. The second variation, also carried out by step-wise increases in stress, measures the total strain to a sensitivity of ~10"6 and relates the maximum stress to the area of closed hysteresis loops that are generated under certain conditions (namely, prestrained samples). The foregoing methods have yielded interesting information about the nature of preyield deformation and plastic response to stresses below the yield stress, but they offer certain disadvantages for studying the dynamic behavior of dislocations. In the first method it is physically impossible to specify a plastic strain rate inasmuch as the test sample is reexposed, as it is loaded to its maximum stress in a particular step, to lower stresses at which flow will take place. The strain corresponding to a given stress level on the stress-microstrain curve thus generated will then always be greater than that at the corresponding stress level of a truly dynamic test carried out at the same extension rate. The second method has been used to obtain correlations with dynamic macroscopic flow parameters by applying dislocation damping theory to the hysteresis loop areas.2 The approach has had some success but suffers in that only samples that have been prestrained a few percent can be studied. Although the stresses

Jan 1, 1968

By E. C. Truesdale

A FEW years ago H. M. Cyr, working in the Research Laboratories of The New Jersey Zinc Co., produced a few pounds of zinc1 of such purity that no other elements were detected in it by spectrographic analysis, using the facilities then available. This zinc contained less than one ten-thousandth of one per cent of metallic impurities.2 During the decade that followed upon the laboratory production of this "spectro-graphically pure" zinc, commercial developments brought about the production of large tonnages of zinc of purity exceeding 99.99 per cent, and today zinc of 99.999 per cent purity is produced and marketed as "chemically pure" zinc. Typical analyses of present supplies of high-purity zinc are given in Table 1. TABLE 1.-Typical Analyses Percentage by Weight Sum of Zinc Pb, Fe, Pb Fe Cd Al Cd Special High Grades 0.007b 0.005b 0.0056 none 0.0106 C.P. (chemically pure) <0.0002 0.0005° 0.000052 S.P. (spectrographically pure).. <0.0002d <0.00005d a A.S.T.M. Standard Specification for Special High Grade Slab Zinc (A.S.T.M. Designation: B 6-37). b Maximum. c Fe chemically determined. Pb and Cd are spectrographically determined. d Differences between composition of C.P. and S.P. zinc are discussed later in this paper. The availability of commercial tonnages of special high-grade zinc has been the basis for the development of the zinc-base die-casting alloy industry which, in the year 1936, consumed one-eighth of the zinc used in the United States for all purposes. This and the C.P. and S.P. grades have given impetus to scientific investigations into the properties of pure

Jan 1, 1939

By E. C. Truesdale, Gerald Edmunds

A few years ago H. M. Cyr, working in the Research Laboratories of The New Jersey Zinc Co., produced a few pounds of zinc1 of such purity that no other elements were detected in it by spectrographic analysis, using the facilities then available. This zinc contained less than one ten-thousandth of one per cent of metallic impurities.&apos; During the decade that followed upon the laboratory production of this "spectro-graphically pure" zinc, commercial developments brought about the production of large tonnages of zinc of purity exceeding 99.99 per cent, and today zinc of 99.999 per cent purity is produced and marketed as "chemically pure" zinc. Typical analyses of present supplies of high-purity zinc are given in Table 1. Table 1.—Typical Analyses Percentnge by Weight Sum of Zinc Fe, Ib1 Fe Cd 1A1 cd Special High Grade*.......... 0.007b 0.005b 0.005b none O.OIOb C.P. (chemically pure)......... < 0.0002 0.0005c 0.000052 S.P. (spectrographically pure).. <0.0002d <0.00005d a A.S.T.M. Standard Specification for Special High Grade Slab Zinc (A.S.T.M. Designation: B 637). b Maximum. &apos; Fe chemically determined. Pb and Cd are spectrographically determined. d Differences between composition of C.P. and S.P. zinc are discussed later in this paper. The availability of commercial tonnages of special high-grade zinc has been the basis for the development of the zinc-base die-casting alloy industry which, in the year 1936, consumed one-eighth of the zinc used in the United States for all purposes. This and the C.P. and S.P. grades have given impetus to scientific investigations into the properties of pure

Jan 1, 1939

By E. C. Truesdale, Gerald Edmunds

A few years ago H. M. Cyr, working in the Research Laboratories of The New Jersey Zinc Co., produced a few pounds of zinc1 of such purity that no other elements were detected in it by spectrographic analysis, using the facilities then available. This zinc contained less than one ten-thousandth of one per cent of metallic impurities.&apos; During the decade that followed upon the laboratory production of this "spectro-graphically pure" zinc, commercial developments brought about the production of large tonnages of zinc of purity exceeding 99.99 per cent, and today zinc of 99.999 per cent purity is produced and marketed as "chemically pure" zinc. Typical analyses of present supplies of high-purity zinc are given in Table 1. Table 1.—Typical Analyses Percentnge by Weight Sum of Zinc Fe, Ib1 Fe Cd 1A1 cd Special High Grade*.......... 0.007b 0.005b 0.005b none O.OIOb C.P. (chemically pure)......... < 0.0002 0.0005c 0.000052 S.P. (spectrographically pure).. <0.0002d <0.00005d a A.S.T.M. Standard Specification for Special High Grade Slab Zinc (A.S.T.M. Designation: B 637). b Maximum. &apos; Fe chemically determined. Pb and Cd are spectrographically determined. d Differences between composition of C.P. and S.P. zinc are discussed later in this paper. The availability of commercial tonnages of special high-grade zinc has been the basis for the development of the zinc-base die-casting alloy industry which, in the year 1936, consumed one-eighth of the zinc used in the United States for all purposes. This and the C.P. and S.P. grades have given impetus to scientific investigations into the properties of pure

Jan 1, 1939

By Sweetser, Ralph A

AT the fall meeting of the Iron and Steel Division, Oct. 4, 1934, in New York, a symposium was held on Slag Control in the Making of Iron and Steel. The chairman was J. H. Nead and the vice chairman, G. B. Waterhouse. The latter presided at both morning and afternoon sessions. The papers and discussions were presented in the order in which they appear on the following pages. To meet space requirements, much of this material has been considerably condensed. CONTENTS Slag Control and the Blast Furnace. By Ralph H. Sweetser. (With dis¬ cussion.) I Slag Control in Rimming Steel. By L. F. Reinartz 5 Slag Control Applied to Low-carbon Steel. By Frank G. Norris 9 Discussion on both papers 11 Slag Control for Basic Open-hearth High-carbon Steel. By W. J. Reagan. (With discussion.) 14 Slag Control for Recarburized Rail Steel. By A. P. Miller and T. S. Washburn. (With discussion.) 18 Slag Control for Alloy Forging Steel. By A. L. Feild. (With discussion.). . . 24 Slag Control for Alloy Forging Steel. By R. C. Good 27 Slag Control in Acid Open-hearth Steel. By Francis B. Foley. (With dis¬cussion.) 29 Slag Control for Basic Electric-furnace Steel. By H. F. Walther. (With discussion.) 31 Physical Testing of Slag. By A. B. Kinzel. . 40 General Discussion 41

Jan 1, 1935

By J. C. Fisher

Nucleation theory is applied to martensite nucleation in substitutional iron alloys. Composition fluctuations are neglected, and a steady rate of nucleation is predicted for any composition and temperature. The maximum rate of nucleation (as a function of temperature) is shown to be measurable only for on extremely narrow composition range, being too great or too small outside this range. A number of experimental observations, including completely isothermal transformation in some alloys and composition-dependence of M. temperature in others, are compared with the calculated behavior. IN a previous report,¹ nucleation theory was applied to the formation of isothermal martensite in an Fe-Ni-Mn alloy. The experimental observations of Cech and Hollomon² were accounted for quantitatively. It now is of interest to examine the predictions of nucleation theory with respect to martensite transformation in substitutional iron alloys of other compositions. Since Fe-Ni alloys have received considerable attention, both as to their transformation kinetics and their free energies, they will be treated in detail, although the results apply with equal validity to other substitutional alloys. In substitutional alloys, where composition fluctuations can be neglected in volumes of critical nuclear size, the rate of nucleation of martensite in subcooled austenite is¹ n - Nv exp (—W*/kT) [I] where the free energy of formation of the critical size nucleus is W* = 8192 p (?² s³) [2] In the expressions for n and W*, the symbols have the following meanings: N is the number of atoms per unit volume; v, the atomic vibration frequency; 8, a function of the elastic constants of austenite and the shear angle of martensite; , the austenite/mar-tensite inter facial free energy; and ?fc is the free energy change per unit volume accompanying the transformation. Jones and Pumphrey² have determined the austenite to martensite free energy change as a function of nickel content and temperature for Fe-Ni alloys. Their expression is ?F = 2500 C + 1.25 (1 —C)?FFc cal per mol [3] where C is the atom fraction of nickel, and ?Ffe is the free energy change per unit volume for pure iron as tabulated by Zener4 (or, equivalently, Fisher"). From Eqs. 1 to 3, it is possible to calculate isothermal nucleation rates as a function of temperature and composition for Fe-Ni alloys. The only unknown parameter is (?² s³). The best value of this parameter for Fe-Ni alloys, determined from M. temperatures in a manner to be described shortly, is (?² s³)= 9.92 (10)21 cgs units [4] Taking this value of (?² s³), C-curves for isothermal nucleation were calculated for Fe-Ni alloys of several compositions, and are plotted in Fig. 1. It is evident from Fig. 1 that completely isothermal nucleation of martensite in Fe-Ni alloys can be observed experimentally for only a very narrow range of compositions. Cech and Hollomon find that a nucleation rate of about 10&apos; nuclei per cc per sec is as fast as they can follow dilatometrically, and a rate of about 10-1 nucleus per cc per sec is about the slowest that can be measured conveniently. If the nucleation rate is to lie between the limits 10-1 10 the nickel content of an Fe-Ni alloy must fall in the atomic fraction range 0.299 5 C 5 0.302. Nickel contents lower than 0.299 correspond to nucleation rates too great to follow, and those higher than 0.302 to nucleation rates too slow to measure in a reasonable time.* In view of the narrow corn- position range in which successful isothermal measurements can be made, it is not surprising that only one substitutional alloy has been described&apos; that comes close to being in the proper range.

Jan 1, 1954

The Arizona Committee, consisting of GERALD F. G. SHERMAN, Chairman, ARTHUR NOTMAN, Secretary, NORMAN CARMICHAEL, B. BRITTON GOTTSBERGER, W. L. CLARK, J. C. GREENWAY, W. G. MCBRIDE, FOREST RUTHERFORD, has arranged the following program for the Arizona Meeting, which has been approved by the President of the &apos;Institute and by the Executive Committee. It is printed herewith for the information of members, and probably will not be changed in any material respect. Monday, September 18, 1916.-Arrive at El Paso, Texas,, 6.30 A.M. Arrive at Deming, N. Mex., 9.30 A.M. Arrive at Chino, Ariz., 11.30 A.M., where luncheon will be served, after which there will be a visit to the Chino mines. From there the train will proceed to Hurley, N. Mex., where a visit will be made to the mill of the Chino Copper Co. Tuesday, September 19, 1916.-Arrive at Douglas, Ariz., at 8.00 A.M. The morning will be spent at the reduction works of the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Co. "and of the Calumet & Arizona Mining Co. After luncheon a technical session will be held, with "Smelting" as a special subject for discussion. There will be a banquet in the evening, followed by another technical session or-a business meeting.

Jan 6, 1916

THE Institute assembled in the rooms of the Geographical Society, Cooper Union, at 8 o&apos;clock P.M., February 24th, 1874. President Barnard, of Columbia College, delivered an address of welcome, to which President Raymond responded. The Council then presented the following names, duly indorsed for election as members and associates. The gentlemen named were unanimously elected. *Bullock, M. C., - New York. †Burke, M. D., - Cincinnati, Ohio. *Burt, M. W., -Wheeling, W. Va. †Cameron, J. G. M., - New York. *Canfleld, Frederick A., - Dover, N. J. *Chandler, Prof. C. F., - New York. *Clayton, J. E., - Salt Lake City. †Colton, C. A., - New York. *Cooke, Prof. George H., - New Brunswick, N. J. *Cooper, Edward, - New York. *Dahlgren, C. B., - Mazatlan, Mexico. †Dutton, Capt. C. E., - Washington, D. C. *Eurich, E. F., - New York. †Fuller, H. L., - Woodside, Luzerne County, Pa. †Hamilton, S. Jr., - New York †Harnickell, A., - New York. *Hearne, F. J., - Wheeling, W. Va. *Hill, Samuel W., - Marshall, Mich. *Hulbert, Edward J., - Houghton, Mich. *Hunt, R. W., - Troy, N. Y. †lhlseng, M., - New York. *Iselin, Henri, - New York. *Janney, Morris P., - Pottstown, Pa. *Jenney, Frank B., - Brooklyn, N. Y. *Jenney, Walter P., - Brooklyn, N. Y. †Joy, D. A., - New York. *King, Clarence, - New York. *Kittoe, E. F., - Charleston, S. C. †Lawrence, Robert,. - New York. *Locke, J. M., - Cincinnati, Ohio. *McCormick, Henry, - Harrisburg, Pa. * Members. † Associates.

Jan 1, 1874

The Institute assembled in the rooms of the Geographical Society, Cooper Union, at 8 o&apos;clock P.M., February Nth, 1874. President Barnard, of Columbia College, delivered an address of Welcome, to which President Raymond responded. The Council then presented the following names, duly indorsed for election as members and associates. The gentlemen named were unanimously elected. *Bullock, M. C.,. ., . New York. Burke, M. D.,.... Cincinnati, Ohio. *Burt, M. W.,.....Wheeling, W. Va. Cameron, J. G. M.,. ..&apos;New York. *Canfield, Frederick A,,. .. Dover, N. J. *Chandler, Prof. C. F.,. .. New York. *Clayton, J. E.,. .. . Salt Lake City. Colton, C. A,,.... New York. *Cooke, Prof. George H.,. . New Brunswick, N. J. *Cooper, Edward,.... New York. "Dahlgren, C. B.,.... Mazatlan, Mexico. Dutton, Capt. U. E.,. .. Washington, D. C. *Eurich, E. F.,.... New York. Fuller, H. L.,.... Woodside, Luzerne County, Pa. Hamilton, S. Jr.,.....New York: Harnickell, A,,.,.. New York. *Hearne, F. J.,. .. . Wheeling, W. Va. *Hill, Samuel W.,.... Marshall, Mich. *Hulbert, Edward J.,. . Houghton, Mich. *Hunt, R. W.,.....Troy, N. Y. Ihlseng, M.,.....New York. "Iselin, Henri,.... New York. *Janney, Morris P.,. ..Pottstown, Pa. "Jenney, Frank B.,. .. . Brooklyn, N. Y. *Jenney, Walter P.,... Brooklyn, N. Y. Joy, D. A.,.....New York. *King, Clarence,.... New York. *Kittoe, E. F.,....Charleston, S. C. Lawrence, Robert,.... New York. *Locke, J. M.,..... Cincinnati, Ohio. *McCormick, Henry,. .. Harrisburg, Pa.