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By John W. Bell

In the introduction to an excellent pamphlet, John Gross' makes the following statements: Although marked progress has been made along mechanical lines, the theory and conception of underlying principles have not advanced so rapidly. This lack of advance in theory may be attributed to the unfortunate situation resulting from the controversy as to whether the Rittinger or Kick law is applicable to crushing. Many pages of the technical literature are burdened with theoretical discussions in favor of one or the other of these laws, which have tended to cloud rather than to clear the atmosphere. Realizing the situation, the Milling Committee of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, through its secretary, E. A. Hersam, studied the milling industry and, because of the apparently hopeless lack of agreement in the Kick versus Rittinger dispute (5, 13, 14, 0, i8, 19, 21, 22, 23. 24, 30. 34), concluded that a foundation for the theory of crushing was of primary importance. The numbers in the paragraph quoted refer to papers listed by Mr. Gross in his Bibliography on Crushing and Grinding.1 One is obliged to infer that these papers show "hopeless lack of agreement in the Kick versus Rittinger dispute." No. 22 is a paper by Arthur O. Gates2 and No. 23 is one by the writer.3 Employing the subject matter contained in papers Nos. 22 and 23 2,3 the writer will show that their authors formulated identical conclusions, based solely on experimental evidence. Exactly the same defect in the Stadler hypothesis was described in each of the two papers, although entirely different experimental methods were employed in uncovering it. Both of the authors, independently, formulated the conclusion that Rittinger's was a true hypothesis and Stadler's false. The evidence in a third paper4 will be employed to prove that Stadler's hypothesis, when examined experimentally, is worthless. STADLER'S HYPOTHESIS WORTHLESS It is the writer's opinion that the evidence available in 1915 and the corroborating evidence in 1916 was amply sufficient to eliminate the need for any further consideration of Stadler's hypothesis. Certainly the evidence produced in 1918 dealt this hypothesis its coup de grace. It follows, therefore, that in the year 1918 there was only one credible hypothesis left-the Rittinger hypothesis. Gates' Opinion What information is available in Mr. Gates' paper?2 His conclusions are not consecutively summarized, none the less they are perfectly clear. On page 876, Gates says, and it is a very significant utterance: But my results show, among other things, that many more of Stadler's energy units are obtained per foot-pound-applied in coarse than in fine crushing. This suggests a doubt as to the correctness of his unit, since one would expect a foot-pound-applied to produce the same number of "energy units," whether the feed and resulting product were coarse or fine. When Rittinger's theory is applied, the number of mesh-tons (my unit of surface produced) is

Jan 1, 1942

By W. I. Duvall, D. E. Stephenson

A theoretical solution is given for the energy that is radiated outward when either a cylindrical or spherical cavity located underground in a uniform stress field is suddenly created or enlarged. The method of derivation shows that the stress field in the solid rock surrounding the opening does work on the rock because of elastic displacements that result when the size of the cavity is increased. The amount of this work is sufficient to account for both the increase in the strain energy in the rock surrounding the opening and the seismic energy that radiates outward. Thus, the source of the radiant seismic energy is mainly the gravitational potential energy and not the strain energy stored in the rock. The amount of the radiant seismic energy is directly proportional to the volume of the rock removed from the opening or relieved of stress. Seismic energies from rockbursts are compared with earthquake energies. Also, the amount of gravitational potential energy released by underground explosions is calculated and found to be small compared to the seismic energy generated by the detonation of the explosive. A review of the early literature on rockbursts shows that a number of investigators calculated the amount of energy released by rockbursts. 1-5 However, none of these papers give the formula used to make these calculations or a reference to the derivation of any formulas. The general impression that one obtains from these early papers is that the main source of the seismic energy released by rock-burst is the strain energy stored in the rock before it is fractured. However, a few of the early papers appear to have considered the solid rock at a distance from the mine opening as a possible source of the seismic energy. Recently Black and starfield7 gave a theoretical solution for the strain energy in a stressed plate with and without a circular hole. Also, Press and Archambeau8 gave the theoretical solution for the seismic energy released when a spherical cavity is created in rock subjected to a three-dimensional stress field. Both of the above theoretical papers start with the condition of no opening and calculate the strain energy before and after the opening is suddenly formed. Neither of these papers appear to have calculated the work done by the applied stress field as the cavity is enlarged. The rockburst problem associated with deep mining is concerned with the failure of the solid rock surrounding an underground opening. Therefore, it seems appropriate to consider theoretically the problem of suddenly enlarging the size of an existing opening. The purpose of this paper is to present the theoretical solution for the energy that is available for release as seismic energy when an underground circular tunnel or spherical cavity is suddenly enlarged in diameter. To keep the mathematics as simple as possible, a uniform radial applied stress field is assumed and the rock is assumed to be isotropic, homogeneous and perfectly elastic.

Jan 1, 1965

By L. J. Boucher

The beneficiation process at Northampton is described and reasons are given for installing a flotation plant. The economics of running the plant, the difficulties of operation, and subsequent remedial action are discussed. CEMENT rock from a quarry operated by the Northampton plant1, 2 of the Universal Atlas Cement Co. has a relatively low average CaCO³ content. To meet specifications required for cement manufacture it was formerly necessary, over succeeding years, to add increasingly larger amounts of high-lime, low-alumina rock, which was obtained from a quarry operated by the company at a point along the New Jersey-New York state border, 79 miles from Northampton. Previous to 1940, 8 pct of total kiln feed consisted of high-lime rock. From 1940 to 1943, this figure jumped to 13 pct. Today it would be necessary to use 18 pct of this high-lime to meet current specifications. Increasing transportation costs made this an expensive operation. In addition, this high-lime rock quarry was contaminated with granite and high magnesia pockets. As there was no available high-lime rock in the Lehigh Valley, it was decided in 1936 to install a pilot plant where experimental work was done on processing local cement rock with flotation and burning the resulting product in a small kiln. This plant was in operation for six months and at the end of that period a suitable method of flotation had been established. From these studies it was also found that if the proportion of shipped-in rock rose slightly above 10 pct it became economically advisable to use the flotation process. It is the object of this paper to present briefly the operation of the flotation system at the Northampton plant. It seems advisable to comment on the raw material used in this process. The Northampton quarry lies geologically in what is known as the Jacksonburg formation of Trenton limestone.' In Pennsylvania this extends in a southwesterly direction from Portland, through Nazareth, Bath, and Northampton and across the Lehigh River to Ormrod. This argillaceous limestone was formed from marine deposits laid down during the early Ordivician period when a shallow sea covered most of Pennsylvania. Carbonaceous matter in the original deposit formed graphitic carbon under later metamorphic forces. From this graphite the cement rock of the Lehigh Valley derives its dark color. Most of the graphite must be removed before lime flotation can proceed. The quartz in this rock is desirable from the chemist's point of view, as it furnishes him with a form of silica necessary in the calcining process, but its abrasive properties damage pumps and piping. Aluminum silicates of potassium, sodium, iron, and magnesium are found in the form of sericite. Cal-cite averages from 69 to 76 pct. Iron in the form of iron pyrites is also present and has no deleterious effect. Talc is present in minute quantities. The

Jan 1, 1954

By N. J. Grant, Hans Brunner

ThE materials used in this investigation were furnished by the Aluminum Co. of America and consisted of high-purity alurhinum (99.995 pct) and two aluminum-magnesium alloys containing approximately 2 and 5 pct Mg. The compositions of these alloys are listed in Table I. The materials were received as hot rolled 3/8-in. diam rods and were made from the same heats as the materials which were previously used in this laboratory.'j3 The rods were cold swaged to 1/4-in. diam by 1 in. long, and then had two parallel flats machined over the gage length 0.085 in. apart. The test bars were annealed for 10 min at 700° F, and strained 1 pct in tension at room temperature. They were electropolished (80 pct acetic acid; 20 pct perchloric acid, 70 pct concentration) at a temperature of 60°F at approximately 20 v. A grid, transverse or square, spaced 0.2 mm apart, was impressed by rolling a fine threaded screw (128 threads per in.) across the flat surfaces. The depth of the grooves was less than 5 p. For final annealing and grain size control the specimens were enclosed in aluminum foil and sealed in Vycor tubes. Annealing conditions varied from 1 hr at 700° F to 5 days at 1050° F, depending on the alloy content, to give for most of the specimens a final grain size of about 1 mm. This treatment was followed by electropol-ishing as described above. For the test series presented in Figs. 4 and 5 round specimens were used instead of flat ones, and fine machining marks served as marker lines instead of the impressed grid lines. Electropolishing was omitted. The major advantage is that the spacing of the machining marks is only about 1 u as compared to the 200 u of the impressed grid lines, permitting higher precision in strain measurements. Unfortunately the strain annealing necessary for grain size control also resulted in some preferred orientation of the grains. The preferred orientation of three arbitrary specimens was measured by X-ray diffraction methods and the averaged results are shown in Fig. 1. The possible effects of the preferred orientation on the test results will be discussed later. The testing temperatures were 410°, 515", 725", and 940° F, with one exception in the case of the 5.1 pct Mg alloy. Since the solubility limit of this alloy is 520°F, a test temperature of 545°F was cho-se sen instead of 515°F. The selection of the test temperature was based on two considerations: 1) at 900°F and above, extensive grain boundary migration made it more difficult to measure grain boundary sliding; 2) at 400°F and below, there was so little grain boundary sliding that it was again difficult to make precise measurements. The stress was chosen to give a creep rate of approximately 2.7 pct per hr in connection with Figs. 2

Jan 1, 1961

By Ferit Gurses

Extensive coal and lignite deposits exist in Turkey. Bituminous coal is the nation's principal mineral resource; important not only as fuel for the industrial development of the country, but also as a means of obtaining foreign exchange. Of the electrical power generated during 1939, 82.8 per cent was derived from coal.' It is anticipated that the lignite deposits will be one of the major sources of power for the electrification of the country. Bituminous Coal The locations of the four principal bituminous-coal2 basins are indicated on Fig. 1. The Eregli-Zonguldak basin lies on the Black Sea northwest of Ankara; the Canakkale basin lies near the junction of the Dardannelles; the Trakya basin is in European Turkey northwest of the Bosphorus and the Erzurum basin lies far to the east. The Eregli-Zonguldak basin is the most important of the four. This coal basin was discovered in 1829 but did not arouse interest until 1848; up to 1865, its annual production had not exceeded 50,000 metric tons. In 1865, during the Sultanate, working of coal mines was started by the Navy department, and the annual production was 61,145 metric tons. In 1908, the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture was authorized to develop the whole coal basin. Production reached 264,397 metric tons in 1910, and during 1915-1922, preceding the revolution, the total produc- tion of the basin was' 2,676,043, or an average of 334,000 metric tons annually. The period of national revolution that followed was marked by a steady increase in coal production in Turkey, although world production decreased, because of the crisis of 1929-1932, about 52 per cent. ARea and Geology of the Coal Basin The geology of the Eregli-Zonguldak area is not yet completely known. The basin begins -at Gungazi, to the west of Eregli, and extends to Sogutozu, a distance of about 106 miles. The coal beds, however, appear only in places and the overlying Cretaceous strata hide them elsewhere. This area includes the most important centers, such as Kandilli, Alacaagzi, Teflenli, Kozlu, Gelik (see Fig. 2). The geological sequence of the district is correlated with the Cretaceous of the Balkans; which is, in turn, a prolongation of the Alpine zone. Geological surveys made by G. Ralli, R. Zeiller and P. Arni3 show that the Eregli-Zonguldak formations fall into three natural divisions. Series a, The Alacaagzi in the district of that name (Fig. 2), is of the Culm stage. The strata strike generally east-west and dip about 30" south. This series appears also around Kandilli and Camli, with a steeper angle of dip, but the deposits there lack regularity. The Alacaagzi stage appears also farther east, to the south of Kozlu and Gelik. The Alacaagzi series contains 15 seams of an average thickness of 2 ft. of good coal. Series b, the Kozlu, best represented in Zonguldak, Kilimli, Catalagzi, and between

Jan 1, 1944

By James F. Watson, Jack L. Christian

The austenite to martensite solid state phase transformation in the 300 series austenitic stainless steels was studied over the temperature range of 788° to -423°F. The primary variables controlling this transformation are temperature, plastic strain, and chernical composition. Consequently, temperature effects were studied by measurements at 78", -100°, -320°, ad -423°F; plastic strain was controlled by cold-rolling the alloys varying amounts between 40 and 80 pet; and chemical compositions were varied by using 301, 302, 304 ELC, and 310 stainless steel alloys which exhibit varying degrees of austenite stability. The martensite contents of various alloys were correlated with several mechanical properties including yield and ultimate tensile strength, elongation, and notched tensile strength (Kt = 6.3). The yield and tensite strengths generally increased with increasing martensite content, but ) no correlation was observed between elongation and martensite content. The notched/un-notched ratio (Kt = 6.3) at -423°F exhibited a maximun at about 65 pct martensite. Attempts to correlate austenite stability (as measured by the Ms temperature) with both martensite content, and incremental increases in martensite content resulting from tensile testing were generally unsuccessful because the variable of cold Work could not be separated. As a result, only a general correlation of these variables was obtained. A (111) pole figure of austenite in a cold-rolled 301 stainless steel mas prepared an attempt to further investigate directionality as exhibited by mechan- ical properties. Yield strength was correlated with this pole figure, but ultimate and notched tensile strengths were not. 1 HE literature contains a wide variety of references pertaining to the austenite to martensite solid state phase transformation in austenitic stainless steel, see references 1 through 18. Discussions of the crystallography and kinetics of this transformation are given in references 2, 7, 8, 'and 11, while further discussions of austenite stability and hardening mechanisms are given in references 1, 3, and 10. Two important processing variables involved in this reaction are the degree of cold work and the temperature at which cold work is performed, and the nature of these effects are outlined in references 4 and 12, and 15 and 16 respectively. The latter two references deal primarily with cold rolling conducted at subzero temperatures. The effect of chemical composition on the austenite to martensite reaction was treated in detail by Eichelman and Hull, and they determined an equation for the M, temperature of this type of steel which included the effects of nickel, chromium, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, and manganese.5 Previous studies have shown that austenitic stainless steels of AISI types 301, 302, 304ELC, 310, and 301-N exhibit mechanical properties between 78" and -423"~ that are microstructure dependent, and the dependence of this microstructure on chemistry, temperature, tensile stress, and prior deformation is in general accord with previous investigations which have measured the effects of each of these variables on structure, or more specifically, the austenite-to-martensite transformation.lg The behavior of fully stable alloys, such as ATST type 310, at cryogenic temperatures is

Jan 1, 1962

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from circulars to authors, compiled by Mr. Frank A. Herald when he was Vice-chairman for Production of the Petroleum Division, and revised in 1939. Generally in Table 1 the unit for prescntation of data is a field. For our purposes a field is defined as the whole of a surface area wherein productive locations are continuous. Such unit commonly includes and surrounds nonproductive areas. Such unit commonly includes a great variety of geologic conditions—several units of continuous productive reservoirs of distinctly different structure and of distinctly different stratigraphy. Therefore it is hoped that our authors will subdivide "field" so as to enable students to make analyses that may have scientific and /or commercial value. As to each spacc in the tabulation, it is citller (1) not applicable, (2) the proper entry is not determinable, (3) the proper entry is determinable, but not determinable from data available to the author, (4) the proper entry is determinable by the author. In spaces not applicable, the author will please draw horizontal lines; in spaces where the proper entries are not determinable, the author will please insert x; in spaces where the proper entries are detcrminable but not detcrminable from data available to the author, the author will please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author he will, of course, make such entries. Generally, y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries arc not subject to precise determination. In such rases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces, the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entries need not be hedged to such extent as in cases where the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. For example, if the total production of a field is known to be between 1,800,000 and 1,850,000, the author may report 1,8xx,xxx; or if the production is between 1,850,000 and 1,900,000, the author may report 1,9xx,xxx. Where a numeral is immediately to the left of x or y, such numeral represents the nearest known number in that position. As to quantity of gas produced from many fields the question will arise as to whether the figures should include merely the gas marketed or should include also estimates of gas used in operations and gas wasted. Although rough approximations

Jan 1, 1939

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from circulars to authors, compiled by Mr. Frank A. Herald when he was Vice-chairman for Production of the Petroleum Division: Generally in Table 1 the unit for presentation of data is a field. For our purposes a field is defined as the whole of a surface area wherein productive locations are continuous. Such unit commonly includes and surrounds nonproductive areas. Such unit commonly includes a great variety of geologic conditions-several units of continuous productive reservoirs of distinctly different structure and of distinctly different stratigraphy. Therefore it is hoped that our authors will subdivide "field" so as to enable students to make analyses that may have scientific and/or commercial value. As to each space in the tabulation, it is either (I) not applicable, (2) the proper entry is not determinable, (3) the proper entry is determinable, but not determinable from data available to the author, (4) the proper entry is determinable by the author. In spaces not applicable, the author will please draw horizontal lines; in spaces where the proper entries are not determinable, the author will please insert x; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not determinable from data available to the author, the author will please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author he will, of course, make such entries. Generally, y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces, the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entries need not be hedged to such extent as in cases where the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. For example, if the total production of a field is known to be between 1,800,000 and 1,850,000, the author may report 1,8xx,xxx; or if the production is between 1,850,000 and 1,900,000, the author may report 1,9xx,xxx. Where a numeral is immediately to the left of x or y, such numeral represents the nearest known number in that position. As to quantity of gas produced from many fields the question will arise as to whether the figures should include merely the gas marketed or should include also estimates of gas used in operations and gas wasted. Although rough approximations

Jan 1, 1938

By Walter Miller

A surprising development during the year was the continued high demand for petroleum products and the high level of crude oil charges to the stills. Generally speaking, the petroleum industry during 1946 succeeded in producing a greater quantity of crude oil and petroleum products than in any of the war years, and considerably exceeded the production of any prewar year. Daily crude still charges averaged between 4,700,000 and 4,800,000 bbl per day for 1946 and about equaled the 1945 record, although most pessimistic 1945 guesses, predictions, or fears ranged, for 1946, from only 3,900,000 to 4,400,000 bbl per day. In spite of the high crude charge to the stills, total stock of crude oil was higher at the end of the year by some 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 bbl. A similar story holds regarding stocks of the principal refined products. Gasoline on hand at year's end was two to three million barrels lower, and was considered low for the expected demand during the coming high consuming season, while stocks of light and heavy fuel oils, although some higher than a year previous, hardly reached a comfortable level. The trend in gasoline of high octane number, which has resulted in a marked rise in. the antiknock quality by the end of 1945 (five or six numbers higher than during the war and one number higher than the prewar quality of civilian motor gasoline of 1941) was abruptly arrested by an acute shortage of metallic lead for manufacturing tetraethyl lead. Government action in the form of lead price control, rationing, and the setting of octane ceiling specifications to conform to the reduced ethyl lead compound available were enforced until abrogated at the end of the year. It will be interesting to see how rapidly the octane levels will resume the rising trend, as more metallic lead slowly becomes available for making greater quantities of ethyl lead compound. As octane quality rises over present levels the disadvantage of the refiner without catalytic cracking equipment will increase. Gasoline made by catalytic cracking, without addition of ethyl lead, approximates 77 octane by the official ASTM Motor Method test, compared with 66 for gasoline generally similar in volatility made by the older thermal cracking operation. Catalytic gasoline shows an even greater improvement in the Research octane number, the comparison being roughly 86 Research versus 71 Research octane for the thermal cracked product. This higher differential in Research octane is credited by many, although not universally so, as contributing to better road performance, and consequently resulting in a more desirable product marketwise. In some parts of the country a premium of roughly one fourth cent per gallon is now being paid for gasoline with higher Research octane made possible by including catalytic cracked product in the final blends. If such price differentials in favor of catalytic gaso-

Jan 1, 1947

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from circulars to authors, compiled by Mr. Frank A. Herald when he was Vice-chairman for Production of the Petroleum Division: Generally in Table 1 the unit for presentation of data is a field. For our purposes a field is defined as the whole of a surface area wherein productive locations are continuous. Such unit commonly includes and surrounds nonproductive areas. Such unit commonly includes a great variety of geologic conditions-—several units of continuous productive reservoirs of distinctly different structure and of distinctly dzerent stratigraphy. Therefore it is hoped that our authors will subdivide "field" so as to enable students to make analyses that may have scientific and/or commercial value. As to each space in the tabulation, it is either (1) not applicable, (2) the proper entry is not determinable, (3) the proper entry is determinable, but not determinable from data available to the author, (4) the proper entry is determinable by the author. In spaces not applicable, the author will please draw horizontal lines; in spaces where the proper entries are not determinable, the author will please insert x; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not determinable from data available to the author, the author will please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author he will, of course, make such entries. Generally, y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces, the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entries need not be hedged to such extent as in cases where the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use 2. For example, if the total production of a field is known to be between 1,800,000 and 1,850,000, the author may report l,8x,xxx; or if the production is between 1,850,000 and 1,900,000, the author may report 1,9xx,xxx. Where a numeral is immediately to the left of x or y, such numeral represents the nearest known number in that position. As to quantity of gas produced from many fields the question will arise as to whether the figures should include merely the gas marketed or should include also estimates of gas used in operations and gas wasted. Although rough approximations

Jan 1, 1937

Secondary blast holes are now being pierced in quartzite and sandstone quarries, using multiple hand-operated Jet-Piercing units supplied with oxygen, fuel and water from a compact mobile carrier. A unit of this type, operating in a Canadian quarry, enabled four Jet-Piercing blowpipes to pierce blast holes for two hours without shutdown. The piercing blowpipes used were developed by Linde Air Products Co., a division of Union Carbide and Carbon Corp. The mobile supply carrier was constructed by the quarry from specifications supplied by Linde and modified by the quarry operators for their particular use. Employment of the new self-contained unit, which allows up to four operators to pierce approximately 450 ft of blast hole without shutdown, accelerates rock removal operations. Normally, only two blowpipes are in operation at one time. Large boulders or ledges, which sometimes remain after primary blasting to hamper loading operations, can, in the case of certain hard rock, be prepared for reduction more rapidly with these new units than by any other means. A special feature of the new manual Jet-Piercing unit is the mobile gas and fluid supply carrier. It consists of a standard truck chassis fitted out with four banks of large standard-capacity oxygen cylinders, a steel-holding tank for fuel oil, and a gasoline-driven air compressor and tank for pressurizing the fuel oil tank. Cooling water for the blowpipes is supplied to the unit from a hose extension to the quarry supply line. Feeder lines from the oxygen cylinder manifolds and the oil and water tanks terminate in four sets of take-off stations on the control panel at the rear of the truck. As many as four hand Jet-Piercing blowpipes can be connected to the take-off panel by high-pressure rubber hoses. The hand Jet-Piercing blowpipe used with the mobile supply carrier is a highly portable device which can be manipulated comfortably by one operator. The blowpipe can pierce blast holes at rates up to 60 ft per hour, depending on the properties of the rock. Blast holes can be pierced at any angle from the vertical to the horizontal, making it necessary for the operator to drill from the top of the boulder. Hole diameter is held to approximately that which allows the use of a standard 11/8-in. diameter dynamite. The manual Jet-Piercing blowpipe has these important design features: a burner from which the combustion gases emerge at supersonic speeds (in excess of 6000 ft per sec); a hole-sizing shell which controls the minimum size of the hole and protects the copper burner; and a sliding shield which protects the operator against the steam and spallings ejected from the hole during the piercing. The Jet piercing process has been applied successfully in United States and Canadian quarries within the last several years as an advanced method of "drilling" blast holes.

Jan 1, 1952

record with the Royal Flying Corps was considered a remarkable one, for he was at the front within two months of the date on which he was granted a commission, during which interval he took the prescribed technical course at Oxford, and aviation training at Netheravon and Bristol. On Sept. 14, 1916, he took his first flight over the German lines, when his engine stalled and he had to volplane down, fortunately landing on the French side of the lines. On Sept. 16, he went over the lines with six others, and not returning immediately with the others, was lost. He tried to make for the sea and come back following the course of a river, but when he did descend he found that he was 60 miles west of Paris and 100 miles south of his lines. He flew over to Paris and stayed there for the night, going back to his squadron the next morning. Then on Oct. 4, he was sent up at night for the first time, and in making a landing he passed the flares just as he struck the ground, which put him in total darkness. He struck something and his machine turned a complete somersault, which accident put him in the hospital for ten days. In December, 1916, he left the 21st Squadron and was transferred to the 24th, as the 21st was made an Artillery Squadron and he preferred to remain a fighting scout. In the same month, he was made Acting Flight Commander for about 6 weeks, and about April 3, 1917, his rank of Flight Commander was confirmed. The beginning of May he started to introduce a number of new machines for his squadron, these being of an entirely new type. On May 19, he was up with one of the machines in the evening, practising sharp turns and dives, when the wings suddenly crumpled up and he fell 700 ft., being killed instantly. He was buried in a French Cemetry at Monchy Lagache about 8 miles southeast of Perronne, and about 25 miles east of Amiens. Sergeant Herbert Moore Harbach Herbert Moore Harbach was born in Lebanon, Pa., Apr. 4, 1891, graduated from the Lebanon High School in 1911, and entered State College from which he received his degree of Bachelor of Science in Metallurgical Engineering in 1915. He was employed by the Lackawanna Iron Co., at Buffalo, W. Y., and was later transferred to their Lebanon plant to start up the newly erected benzol plant. He was later made foreman of the coke ovens, which position he held after it was bought by the Bethlehem Steel Co., and until he enlisted in the service of his country in September, 1917. He was stationed at Camp Meade, Md., until the spring of 1918, when he was transferred to the C. W.

Jan 1, 1920

By Walter Miller

A surprising development during the year was the continued high demand for petroleum products and the high level of crude oil charges to the stills. Generally speaking, the petroleum industry during 1946 succeeded in producing a greater quantity of crude oil and petroleum products than in any of the war years, and considerably exceeded the production of any prewar year. Daily crude still charges averaged between 4,700,000 and 4,800,000 bbl per day for 1946 and about equaled the 1945 record, although most pessimistic 1945 guesses, predictions, or fears ranged, for 1946, from only 3,900,000 to 4,400,000 bbl per day. In spite of the high crude charge to the stills, total stock of crude oil was higher at the end of the year by some 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 bbl. A similar story holds regarding stocks of the principal refined products. Gasoline on hand at year's end was two to three million barrels lower, and was considered low for the expected demand during the coming high consuming season, while stocks of light and heavy fuel oils, although some higher than a year previous, hardly reached a comfortable level. The trend in gasoline of high octane number, which has resulted in a marked rise in. the antiknock quality by the end of 1945 (five or six numbers higher than during the war and one number higher than the prewar quality of civilian motor gasoline of 1941) was abruptly arrested by an acute shortage of metallic lead for manufacturing tetraethyl lead. Government action in the form of lead price control, rationing, and the setting of octane ceiling specifications to conform to the reduced ethyl lead compound available were enforced until abrogated at the end of the year. It will be interesting to see how rapidly the octane levels will resume the rising trend, as more metallic lead slowly becomes available for making greater quantities of ethyl lead compound. As octane quality rises over present levels the disadvantage of the refiner without catalytic cracking equipment will increase. Gasoline made by catalytic cracking, without addition of ethyl lead, approximates 77 octane by the official ASTM Motor Method test, compared with 66 for gasoline generally similar in volatility made by the older thermal cracking operation. Catalytic gasoline shows an even greater improvement in the Research octane number, the comparison being roughly 86 Research versus 71 Research octane for the thermal cracked product. This higher differential in Research octane is credited by many, although not universally so, as contributing to better road performance, and consequently resulting in a more desirable product marketwise. In some parts of the country a premium of roughly one fourth cent per gallon is now being paid for gasoline with higher Research octane made possible by including catalytic cracked product in the final blends. If such price differentials in favor of catalytic gaso-

Jan 1, 1947

By A. J. Hatch

Recent disclosures concerning strengthening of anisotropic sheet materials under biaxial stresses are reviewed. This biaxial strengthening has been termed "texture hardening" by Backofen and is related to the normal anisotropy parameter, R. Measurements of R made on three annealed titanium alloys indicate a Ti-4Al alloy will have the greatest potential for texture hardening, followed in order by Ti-5Al-2.5Sn and Ti-6Al-4V. Relative to sheet texture, a review of the deformation mechanisms in titanium alloys would indicate that a preferred orientation for "texture hardening" is where the (0001) pole is normal to the sheet plane. This was confirmed by determination oj (0001) pole figures for the above three alloys. High R values are related to pole figures with (0001) normal to the sheet plane, whereas low R values are related to pole figures with (0001) split in the transverse direction from the sheet normal. PUBLISHED work by Backofen et al. 1 and Hosford and Backofen2 based on hill's' mathematical theory of yielding in anisotropic metals has indicated that significant strength advantages under biaxial stresses are possible in hcp alloys, provided an ideal (0001) [1010] sheet texture exists. This tendency to strengthen under biaxial stresses has been termed "texture hardening".1 It can be quantita- tively characterized by a strain-ratio parameter, R, where R may be determined from the ratio of natural width strain to natural thickness strain as measured on a uniaxial test specimen cut parallel to the rolling direction. If R is greater than 1.0, then strengthening under biaxial tension would be predicted. Considering the a titanium alloys which have an hcp crystal structure, Williams and Eppelsheimer4 have reported that commercial-purity grades deviate from the ideal (0001) sheet texture mainly in an approximate 30-deg rotation of the basal plane, toward the transverse sheet direction. However, McHargue et a1.5 have shown that the angle of rotation of the basal plane is sensitive to alloy content. In particular, a titanium alloy with 3.8 pct Al was reported to have the ideal (0001) [1010] texture after cold rolling. Additionally, Backofen et a1.1 using plane-strain compression tests have reported R values greater than 5.0 for the commercial 0 alloy Ti-5A1-2.Sn (110-AT). In view of these findings, a program was initiated to further determine the potential of commercial Ti-5A1-2.5Sn and an experimental Ti-4A1 alloy with respect to "texture hardening". Also, because of its wide commercial use, Ti-6A1-4V was included in the investigation. BIAXIAL-STRESS THEORY FOR ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS Backofen ef al.,1 based on the mathematical theory of Hi11,3 has introduced the concept of "texture hardening". In this work, it was shown that possi-

Jan 1, 1965

By J. H. Wernick, S. Geller

A number of new AB, compounds, in which A is a rare earth or yttrium atom and B is Al, Mn, Fe, Co, or Ni, having the cubic MgCu, structure (Laves phase) are reported. In most of the compounds, the interatomic distances are normal; the lanthanide contraction is observed. However, in the compounds CeB2, B = Fe, Co, Ni, Ce appears to have a valence substantially greater than three; in CeAl2, Ce appears to be trivalent. These results are interpreted as vesulting from an energetically more favorable situation for the 4f electron of Ce to be lost to the 3d band of Fe, Co, nnd Ni. Evidence for the existence of homogeneitj! ranges in these compounds is presented. THE purpose of this paper is to report on the crys-tallographic investigations of a large number of new compounds, Table I, with the MgCuz structure (cubic Laves phase). It is a part of a continuing study of the magnetic properties and structures of binary systems involving the rare earths. In a previous paper' some of the magnetic properties of such systems were reported briefly. We have also reported2 a number of compounds of the CusCa type. The compounds were prepared by induction melting in Argon atmosphere of mixtures of stoichiomet-ric amounts of the constituent elements.* For most of the compounds fused alumina or silica crucibles were used as the containing vessel; graphite crucibles were used to prepare CeA12, NdAl2 and TbA12. X-ray powder photographs were taken with CrKa radiation and the use of Straumanis-type Norelco cameras of 114.6 mm diam. The compounds AB2 belong to space group Fd3m-Ol with 8A in a): (000; 01/2 '/2;3) + 000-; b % XA and 16B in dl: (000; oVa %; 3) + 5/87; % %; 7e % Vs\£>. Because the intensities of the reflections on the powder photographs of the different compounds are similar, relative intensities were computed only for DyMnz for CrKa radiation, Table 11. In the calculation of intensities, the Thomas and umeda3 atomic scattering factors, corrected for dispersion,4 were used. The agreement between observed and calculated intensities leaves little doubt that DyMnz has the MgCuz structure. Crystallographic data for the ABz compounds are given in Table JII. Twelve of these compounds have been reported by other authors. A comparison of the published results with our work is given in Table W.* ers of elements of lower purity, to peritectic reactions in some cases, and to the presence of homogeneity ranges in these alloys, so that melting losses would still result in single phase alloys. The possibility of existence of homogeneity ranges in these compounds was investigated systematically only for GdMnz. At room temperature, the solid solution range is between

Jan 1, 1961

By A. B. Dyes

In the operation of a water-driven reservoir, a free gas saturation can he established by maintaining production rates fast enough to cause the reservoir pressure to decline below the bubble point. The benefit of such a procedure on the displacement efficiency of the oil by water is illustrated for two types of sandstone samples from one reservoir. Those rock samples showing the poorest recovery to water drive in the absence of a free gas saturation give the most improvement in the presence of a free gas saturation. Employing one type of reservoir fluid (low .shrinkage) the benefit of evolved gas on oil displacement is calculated at several reservoir pressures below the bubble point. This demonstrates the presence of air optimum pressure for water displace,rnent which is .several hundred pounds per .square inch below the bubble point. Displacement of oil at the optimum pressures results in the removal of 7 to I? per cent more oil than would be obtained by displacement at the bubble point pressure. In some instance. this magnitude of increase may be worthy of consideration in establishing the maximum efficient rate of production from many water-driven fields. INTRODUCTION For many years the belief that the use of gas could be combined with that of water to result in a better recovery operation than the use of either of these phases alone has been prevalent in the oil industry. This is evidenced by the several field trials which have employed the injection of gas and water in combination.1.2.v In most cases the small amount of any additional recovery, in combination with the limited knowledge available on the older reservoirs, has left uncertain the influence of gas on recovery in these earlier attempts to combine the use of gas with water. Research studies in recent years have demonstrated through laboratory. floods the magnitude of the benefit of the presence of gas on the displacement of oil from sandstones by water.5,6,7,8,9,10,11 In addition, studies of the distributions of the phases which are present during the displacement process have developed concepts concerning the mechanism by which this benefit is obtained."." It now remains for the engineer to incorporate these findings into the general technology of reservoir operations. It is the purpose of this paper to illustrate that the production of a water-driven reservoir at pressures below the bubble point is one such operation whereby improved oil displacement efficiency can be obtained as a result of gas evolution. The establishment of a gas saturation by evolution of dissolved gas was one of the techniques used by several investigators in the laboratory studies. The possibility of obtaining the benefit of gas evolution in water-driven reservoirs by producing at pressures less than the bubble point has 3150 been pointed out previously." The desirability of this operation has undoubtedly

Jan 1, 1955

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from circulars to authors, compiled by Mr. Frank A. Herald when he was Vice-chairman for Production of the Petroleum Division, and revised in 1939. Generally in Table 1 the unit for prescntation of data is a field. For our purposes a field is defined as the whole of a surface area wherein productive locations are continuous. Such unit commonly includes and surrounds nonproductive areas. Such unit commonly includes a great variety of geologic conditions—several units of continuous productive reservoirs of distinctly different structure and of distinctly different stratigraphy. Therefore it is hoped that our authors will subdivide "field" so as to enable students to make analyses that may have scientific and /or commercial value. As to each spacc in the tabulation, it is citller (1) not applicable, (2) the proper entry is not determinable, (3) the proper entry is determinable, but not determinable from data available to the author, (4) the proper entry is determinable by the author. In spaces not applicable, the author will please draw horizontal lines; in spaces where the proper entries are not determinable, the author will please insert x; in spaces where the proper entries are detcrminable but not detcrminable from data available to the author, the author will please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author he will, of course, make such entries. Generally, y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries arc not subject to precise determination. In such rases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces, the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entries need not be hedged to such extent as in cases where the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. For example, if the total production of a field is known to be between 1,800,000 and 1,850,000, the author may report 1,8xx,xxx; or if the production is between 1,850,000 and 1,900,000, the author may report 1,9xx,xxx. Where a numeral is immediately to the left of x or y, such numeral represents the nearest known number in that position. As to quantity of gas produced from many fields the question will arise as to whether the figures should include merely the gas marketed or should include also estimates of gas used in operations and gas wasted. Although rough approximations

Jan 1, 1939

US 4,137,751-Aerial geophysical exploration for ore deposits by collecting and analyzing atmospheric particulates The aircraft has an Inlet duct extending outward and including a "shave-off" duct, a cyclone separator located inside the cabin which is coupled to the inlet duct, a clean air exhaust duct, and a receiver for the collected particles incoming air is divided into two fractions. The fraction taken by the "shave-off" duct and containing the bulk of the particles is routed to the cyclone Particulates are gathered on a collector tape for subsequent analysis and correlation with the areas covered J. R Rhodes, R D. Sieberg, M. C Taylor, J. C Westkaemper, and R C. Young, assigned to Columbia Scientific Industries, Inc Feb. 6, 1979 7 pp. (73-28) Filed- 2-28-75 (554,114) Same British 1,446,760, dated Aug. 18, 1976. US 4,156,138-Exploration for subsurface deposits of uranium ore Pairs of dosimeters are placed underground in a grid pattern Each dosimeter contains a phosphor which IS capable of storing the energy of alpha particles. One dosimeter is heavily shielded from alpha particles, while the other in the pair is thinly shielded to exclude dust After a period underground the dosimeters are heated to release the stored energy as light. The amount of light produced from the heavily shielded dosimeter is subtracted from the amount of light produced from the thinly shielded dosimeter to give an indication of the location and quantity of uranium underground This patent is a division of US Patent No 4,053,772, dated Oct 11, 1977 P E Felice, assigned to Westinghouse Electric Corp May 22, 1979 5 pp (250-253) Filed. 8-12-77 (824,203) US 4,180,727-Method for measuring the gamma-gamma density of uranium ore in the vicinity of a borehole A first gamma-ray detector receives only natural gamma rays from the borehole, while a second receives both natural gamma rays and scattered uranium-source gamma rays The value of the uranium-source gamma rays is calculated. W W Givens, assigned to Mob11 011 Corp Dec 25, 1979 6 pp (250- 264) Filed 10-20-77 (843,909) US 4,180,72&A neutron activation probe for determining the location and grade of uranium ore, especially where thorium or other fissionable isotopes are present, includes a pulsed neutron source in series with a plurality of delayed neutron reactors for measuring radioactivity in a well bore- hole together with a Nal(T1) counter for measuring the high energy 2 62 MeV gamma line from thorium The signal from the Nal(T1) counter IS subtracted from the signal from the delayed source detectors to ascertain the amount of uranium present in the ore body N. P Goldstein and R C Smith, assigned to Westinghouse Electric Corp Dec 25,1979 6 pp (250-264) Filed. 4-1 1-78 (895,323)

Jan 1, 1980

By J. M. Smith, D. Kunii, P. Adivarahan

Effective thermal conductivities were measured for seven samples of porous rocks through which gases or aqueous salt solution were flowing, parallel and countercurrent to the flow of heat. The results are analyzed in terms of the contributions of the solid and fluid phases to the total energy transfer. The solid contribution for the sandstone samples studied was found to be a Junction of the porosity and an effective thermal conductivity for the solid phase. The fluid contribution was a function of the Peclet number. Based upon the equations presented, the effective conductivity of the system can be estimated from the properties of the fluid, the flow conditions, and the porosity and pore-size distribution of the rock. INTRODUCTION Heat-transfer characteristics of porous media containing fluids are needed for the design and evaluation of thermal methods of petroleum production. The study reported here considers the problem of countercurrent flow of fluid and heat in sandstone rocks, and is a continuation of previous studies concerned with parallel and radial flow of energy and fluid in both rocks517 and beds of fine particles.6,10 In addition to these earlier works, Asaad,1 Kimura,4 Preston,8 Zierfuss and vlietll and waddams9 have reported effective conductivities for systems filled with stagnant fluids. There appears to be no published data on rocks through which fluids are flowing. The purpose of this study was to present such information and, particularly, to investigate the effects of properties of the rock and the flow rate on the results. The rock samples were naturally occurring sandstones from different locations and were similar to petroleum-bearing formations. The properties of the seven samples showing the range in porosities and permeabilities are given in Table 1. The mean pore sizes were calculated from mercury penetration data by averaging the radius with respect to pore volume. The details of this method and comparison with other procedures for estimating 7 are given elsewhere. Four fluids, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, helium and 10 weight per cent sodium-chloride solution were used with each sample. For Bartlesville sandstone, BA-5, runs were made at mean pressures from 15 to 250 psig using nitrogen. The other measurements were carried out at a mean pressure of 100 psig. The maximum temperature range eacountered was 70° to 300°F. The flow rate of fluid ranged from about 1.0 to 130 Ib/(hr)(sq ft), and this corresponded to a modified Reynolds-number range of 5 x 10-4 to 1.0. The variation in Prandtl number was 0.70 to 4.1. EXPERIMENTAL WORK The equipment consisted of apparatus to supply a constant flow of gas, or salt solution, at constant pressure to the bottom of a vertical test section, and metering and flow-regulation apparatus after the test section. The flow of salt solution was

By D. R. Pratt, R. W. Hanks

The method of Caldwell and Babbitt for detennining Bingham plastic rheological constants from engineering pipe flow data has been erroneously used in many previous applications. A reanalysis of extensive pipe flow data from the literature is performed. Critical Reynolds numbers corresponding to the laminar-turbulent transition calculated from these data are found to agree with theoretically calculated values for the entire flow range studied. Similar agreement is found for the authors&apos; own data&apos; for flow of 10 slurries between parallel plates. The Bingham plastic model is shown to be a reliable representation of the flow of non-Newtonian slurries provided it is properly applied. If the Hedstrom number He = pD2 t0/?2 > 104, then the linear approximation method of Caldwell and Babbitt is invalid for pipe flow data obtained in systems of ordinary engineering interest, and the complete nonlinear form of the pipe flow Bingham plastic equation must be used in determining rheological parameters. INTRODUCTION Many materials of engineering interest must be handled and transported as slurries or suspensions of insoluble particulate matter in a Newtonian liquid. These suspensions frequently exhibit non-Newtonian rheological behavior which is reasonably well described by the simple Bingham plastic rheological equation1 Using this particular equation to describe the laminar flow characteristics of slurries was discussed at length by Caldwell and Babbitt2-4 who considered the flow of various clay slurries and sewage sludges. The model has since been used by many others.5-7 More recently the problem of predicting the laminar turbulent transition Reynolds number for Bingham plastic fluids has been treated8 for the case of flow in pipes. This paper points out errors which have existed in the analysis of Bingham plastic flow since the work of Caldwell and Babbitt2-4 and presents a reanalysis of the laminar turbulent transition calculatiod for Bingham plastic flow in pipes. In addition, new data obtained for flow of Bingham plastic slurries between parallel plates, both in laminar flow and in the laminar turbulent transition region, will be presented and compared with the theoretical analysis of laminar turbulent transition for flow between parallel plates. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS PIPE FLOW The mathematical analysisl-4 of laminar flow of a Bingham plastic fluid leads to the following equation. where q = <v>/R is a pseudoshear rate, rw is the wall shear stress Eo = r0/rw, r0 is the yield stress and 1 is the coefficient of rigidity or plastic viscosity from Eq. 1. Caldwell and Babbitt2-4 recognized that the quartic term in Eq. 2 was small compared to the other terms whenever 5, « 1, and that for large values of 7, a plot of Eq. 2 becomes linear. The slope of such a plot with rw as ordinate is 4? and the intercept is (4/3) ro. This approximation is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. The shaded region between the true curve and the straight-line approximation near the origin represents the contribution of the quartic term. In principle, therefore,