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The U.S. Bureau of Mines investigated CaF2-assisted H2SO4 leaching to extract Mn from domestic silicate manganese resources. A pyroxmangite ((Mn,Fe)Sio3) ore containing, in pct, 34 Mn, 23 Si, 3 Ca, and 1 Fe was leached at 90° C for 3 h in a solution containing, in g/L, 12 Mn, 140 H2SO4, 130 (NH4)2SO4, and 5 CaFz. Manganese extraction of 92 pct was achieved. Manganese of greater than 99 pct purity was prepared by electrolyzing the purified pregnant solution at a current density of 50 mA/cm2. The current efficiency was 65 pct.

Jan 1, 1991

Pyrometallurgical reactors constitute a key processing component in the total primary and secondary resource cycle, being involved both in primary smelting, converting and extraction, as well as the reprocessing of scrap, from aluminum cans to end-of-life automobiles. To effectively control the overall resource cycle, one needs to take a systems modeling approach of the whole cycle, seeking to also understand the dynamic process behavior of the individual components of the cycle, and then especially the part that contributes most to the chemical conversion, namely the pyrometallurgical reactor. This paper highlights the role of pyrometallurgical thermodynamics, in the whole resource cycle and specifically places equilibrium thermochemistry in the context of process dynamics where large variable inventories are recycled or maintained within the system. This paper will therefore review the semi-empirical dynamic modeling tools, which are used to model complex systems with the specific goal of developing dynamic predictive models, which also include slag-alloy chemistry, towards controlling the recycling in a feed forward manner. To illustrate the primary processing side, high carbon ferrochrome will be presented as a brief case study. It also will show how the distributed nature of the chemistry of melts in the case of primary extraction, and secondary materials such as recycled end-of-Iife vehicles, have a significant impact on the process outcomes and model predictions. It is therefore argued that the fundamental thermodynamics and kinetics in metallurgical reactors playa final crucial role in modeling the closed material cycle, but only when it is used in conjunction with process systems theory based on reconciled data for parameter estimation and model calibration.

Jan 1, 2003

Pyrometallmurgical reactors constitute a key processing component in the total primary and secondary resource cycle, being involved both in primary smelting, converting and extraction, as well as the reprocessing of scrap, from aluminum cans to end-of-life automobiles. To effectively control the overall resource cycle, one needs to take a systems modeling approach of the whole cycle, seeking to also understand the dynamic process behavior of the individual components of the cycle, and then especially the part that contributes most to the chemical conversion, namely the pyrometallurgical reactor. This paper highlights the role of pyrometallurgical thermodynamics, in the whole resource cycle and specifically places equilibrium thermochemistry in the context of process dynamics where large variable inventories are recycled or maintained within the system. This paper will therefore review the semi-empirical dynamic modeling tools, which are used to model complex systems with the specific goal of developing dynamic predictive models, which also include slag-alloy chemistry, towards controlling the recycling in a feed forward manner. To illustrate the primary processing side, high carbon ferrochrome will be presented as a brief case study. It also will show how the distributed nature of the chemistry of melts in the case of primary extraction, and secondary materials such as recycled end-of-life vehicles, have a significant impact on the process outcomes and model predictions. It is therefore argued that the fundamental thermodynamics and kinetics in metallurgical reactors playa final crucial role in modeling the closed material cycle, but only when it is used in conjunction with process systems theory based on reconciled data for parameter estimation and model calibration.

Jan 1, 2003

By Pertti Pekkala

Outokumpu has 25 years of experience in the SX area. The development of the solvent extraction plants responds to an ever increasing demand for lower operational costs wd for adaptability to process disturbances with minimized risks. In this paper the features of the VSF ("Vertical Smooth Flow") SX technology are described, such as the separated pumping and mixing, the homogenous gentle mixing, the droplet coalescence and the ultra pure settling. A major advantage of the mixing technology is the high stage efficiency of above 99 per cent. The connection between this and some features of the settler front section is clarified. The present design of VSF plants is based on experience of existing operations at, for example, Zaldivar, Radomiro, Morenci, Kokkola and Harjavalta. These production plants cover a unit capacity range of 60 to 3,600 m3/h expressed as a total flow. It is evident that there are no restrictive factors to increase the total flow up to 5,000-6,000 m3/h by introducing the VSF technology. The copper SX technology has a long history reflecting many individual features of the separate copper SX plants. Still it is necessary to verify all actual running parameters by pilot tests taking into account impurities, chemicals used etc. The design of SX plants is not only about the delivery of equipment but also a process concept, and it is best tailor-made and adapted to specific local requirements.

Jan 1, 1999

By B. S. -J. Kang, M. A. Alvin, J. M. Tannenbaum

"A load-based micro-indentation technique has been developed for damage assessment and non-destructive spallation detection of TBCs at room temperature. This micro-indentation technology has been further extended to the development of a high temperature (HT) test methodology. Elastic modulus calibration tests performed on Hl 3 Tool Steel to 500°C and Haynes 230 at 1000°C displayed excellent agreement with reported values. Moreover, indentation creep tests of Haynes 230 at 1200°C were found to be in agreement with known creep exponents as well. Finally, a HT thermal flux indentation apparatus was assembled for conducting TBC turbine component testing under high temperature moisture-containing environments (= 50% steam with controlled gas content temperatures up to 1250°C). Description and design considerations of this test apparatus are discussed. Preliminary tests of ReneN5/MCrAlY/APS TBC coupons in steam/air environments with in-situ HT micro-indentation testing are conducted. Furthermore, the coupon is removed and examined for damage assessment at periodical intervals.IntroductionLoad and depth relationships acquired throughout the indentation process provide insight to material mechanical properties such as elastic modulus and hardness. Unloading segment analysis of these load displacement curves are utilized in the acquisition of a material's elastic properties. Yet, indentation tests are complex processes involving contact mechanics, material nonlinearity and even fracture mechanics. Thus exact analytical solutions for these processes are difficult to obtain. As a result, much of the current knowledge regarding the indentation process has been acquired through experimental methods and finite element simulations. Initial efforts by Tabor resulted in the application of spherical indentation to obtain post-yielding stress/strain relationships [1]. Soon thereafter, analytical load-depth relations for elastic indentation were developed [2], yet it was Lure who further derived the explicit relationships for both spherical and conical indenters [3]. Improving upon this, these interactions were later extended to indenters with various geometries by various researchers [ 4]. Additionally, by establishing the linearity of the initial unloading slope within the load-depth curve, a relationship between elastic indentation depth, maximum load, unloading slope and indenter geometry was established [5]. From this a theoretical method by which elastic modulus could be determined was established."

Jan 1, 2011

By François Tremblay

It is well known that removal of organic material such ,as Jacquer, paint, plastic prior to melting improves aluminum recovery. In addition to being an important economically, decoating of aluminum scrap has a positive impact on the environment, through better control of gaseous emissions. Most of the existing thermal decoaters for aluminum have been designed to operate with scrap containing a level of organic material lower than 10%. The main field of their present application is for recycling of used aluminum can, where levels of organic material are lower than 4%. Alcan has recently developed a new thermal decoating system in order to extend applications of this process to a much wider variety of aluminum scrap. The new decoater efficiently processes aluminum scrap with a level of organic material up to 50%. This new technology features the use of fluidized bed technology to thermally control the process. This innovative feature improves both performance and control over conventional delacquering systems based on hot air convection. This paper describes the basic principles of the technology and the design of the? first industrial unit commissioned by the Alcan Recycling plant in Shelbyville (TN) at the beginning of 1994. Typical applications and operating advantages are discussed.

Jan 1, 1995

By M. M. Kim

Zn-27% Al was pressure infiltrated into a column of 20 micron diameter abrasive grade SiC particles to give billets with particle loading of 50 voli.une %. Some billets were heated to a temperature where they became semi-solid and diluted with liquid Zn-27% Al alloy to give billets with particle loadings of 12 and 16 volume %. Some of these billets were then extruded into wire with an area reduction of approximately 98%. Tensile properties of the as-cast billets were always inferior to those of the matrix alloys; however, the extruded composite samples showed at 37% improvement in ultimate tensile strength compared to their extruded conventional counterparts. The fracture surfaces of these samples are described.

Jan 1, 1990

By Michael Altepeter

Big River Zinc Corporation, located in Sauget, Illinois, operates a neutral leach residue circuit. The residue produced in the circuit is sold to lead smelters for subsequent recovery of valuable metals. A research program was initiated several years ago to find a means of treating the residue at Big River Zinc to recover the valuable metals. The Ausmelt submerged lance reactor was selected as the best alternative for the first step of the process. Pilot scale tests were conducted at Ausmelt's facilities in Melbourne, Australia. Separations were excellent. 99%+ of the Zn, Pb, Cd, and Ag contained in the residue reported to the oxide fume. 99%+ of the SiO2,, Fe, Mg, and Ca in the residue reported to the slag which passed the EPA TCLP test. Subsequent leaching of the oxide fumes and purification of the leach solutions using conventional procedures produced solUtions suitable for zinc electrowinning and an upgraded lead sulfate cake for sale.

Jan 1, 1992

By Milton Blander

"A review of concepts and theories for predicting thermodynamic solution properties of multicomponent high temperature liquid solutions is reviewed. During the last 50 years the ability to predict such properties for molten salts, silicates and metals based on the generally known properties of the lower order (often binary) systems has been developed and shown to provide predictions which are quite useful in science and technology. There are many gaps in our understanding of these high temperature solutions, especially for metals, and considerably more work is needed.INTRODUCTIONA number of solution theories and concepts have been developed which reliably predict the properties of multicomponent solutions from those of the lower order systems (often only the binaries). Because there is available data for a large fraction of the important binaries, the capability for making predictions for many multicomponent systems used in metallurgical separation processes is broad and potentially very useful. At the very least, the theories greatly minimize the data necessary for predicting properties of complex multicomponent solutions of molten salts, silicates and metals. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the concepts which are demonstrably useful. We will discuss simple forms of the theories to make the concepts clear but we will refer to the publications which contain the more complex equations needed to treat the large majority of systems.A simple framework for understanding what we need to know in order to make technologically useful predictions is based on well known thermodynamic principles. In technologies and sciences where molten salts, slags magmas or molten metals are used or studied, one must often calculate the extent of a chemical reaction (or separation) or of phase changes. To do this, one must first write an equilibrium constant, K, for the reaction in terms of the standard free energy change of the reaction, ?G°."

Jan 1, 1996

By E. Ozberk

The copper and nickel smelting industries are important contributors to the technical and economic well-being of Canada while some of the smelters are among the largest sources of sulphur dioxide emissions in Canada. A review of the operations in six smelters - Falconbridge Limited, Falconbridge, Ontario; Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co. Limited, Flin Flon, Manitoba; Inco Limited, Copper Cliff, Ontario and Thompson, Manitoba; Noranda Mines Limited, Horne Division, Noranda, Quebec and Gaspe Mines Division, Murdochville, Quebec - have shown that about 80% of the total sulphur input to these smelters was emitted to the atmosphere in 1980. A simultaneous review of the existing and emerging technologies which can directly or indirectly reduce the sulphur dioxide emissions indicated that it is possible to reduce the emissions to below 20% of the sulphur input to these smelters. This can be achieved by varying degrees of modifications to the smelting operations and installing sulphur fixation facilities at significant costs which may increase the metal production costs. This would consequently make the competitiveness of the Canadian copper and nickel producers more difficult in the already tough world metals market.

Jan 1, 1983

Several processes are now available for the recovery of free and WAD cyanide from gold plant solutions and pulps. In the past, the incentive for evaluating cyanide recovery in gold plant flowsheets has been economic. In many cases, it has been possible to demonstrate (at least in the laboratory and on paper), an improvement in process economics by; (i) reducing the costs of tailings detoxification, (ii) recycling cyanide at lower cost than the purchase/delivery price of new cyanide, and (iii) generating additional revenue via by¬product sales. Despite these convincing arguments, few cyanide recovery plants have been built at operating gold mines. Also, there is arguably an even more compelling reason for mining companies to consider cyanide recycling. With the growing storm of negative public opinion that the use of cyanide in the mining industry is attracting - following several highly publicized spills over the last couple of years - the time has come for the gold industry to demonstrate environmental diligence and stewardship in the use of this commodity that is so vital for their industry. There is no doubt that the widespread implementation of cyanide recycling will reduce the impact of the cyanidation process on the environment, both by reducing the risk of spills (with less cyanide being transported from manufacturing plants to gold mines), and by reducing the loading of toxic and non-toxic metals and ions in the tailings. In this paper, the various processes that are available for cyanide recovery are discussed, along with the process chemistry. Results of several laboratory and pilot plant trials that have been conducted over the last few years are also presented.

Jan 1, 1998

By Toshio Suzuki, Machiko Ode, Won Tae Kim, Seong Gyoon Kim

"The Ostwald ripening and growth and coarsening of the secondary dendrite arm are studied using a phase-field model. The phase-field parameters are obtained at a thin interface limit proposed by Kim et al. In Ostwald ripening analysis, the difference of the concentration due ·to· the curvature effect is shown. The third power of the average particle radius Rav is proportional to time and the ripening constant shows a good agreement with the value by Deppers et al. The particle radii distribution shows the transition behavior to attain a self-similar stationary shape. The growth and coarsening behavior of the secondary dendrite arm is also analyzed using a phase-field model. The estimated arm spacing and its dependence on time are in good agreements with experimental data.IntroductionThe ripening or coarsening process controls the microstructure during the late stage of solidification. The ripening phenomena are recognized firstly by the Ostwald [1]. The first quantitative analysis for the Ostwald ripening in the limit of vanishing solid fraction was provided by Lifshitz, Slyozov and Wagner (LSW) [2,3]. In their study, that the mean radius grows proportional to the cubic root of time and the size distribution of precipitations shows a ""self-similar"" shape are shown. Most of the studies for the Ostwald ripening confirm or predict these two general rules above. In case of finite solid fraction, the general rules are observed but the ripening constant is larger and the self-similar shape is wider than the LSW prediction respectively [4-6]. To analyze· the high solid fraction system, the theories that consider the solute field correlation are proposed [4,7-8]. In the theory, however, since the particle is treated as the point, the effect of the concentration field deviation from the monopole field should be taken into account. Recently the numerical simulation, in which not only diffusive transportation of solute but also convection effect is considered, has been done using a phase-field model [9]."

Jan 1, 2000

By D. L. Jones

The leaching of natural chalcopyrite was studied in both ferric sulfate and ferric chloride solutions. The chemistry of the two reactions is quite different, with substantial sulfur oxidation occurring only in sulfate solutions. Ferric chloride is a more effective reagent, for the leaching rate is greatly increased with finer particles and higher (Fe+++), and unaffected by high (Fe++); none of these advantages are found with ferric sulfate. In addition, the morphology of leaching appears to be different, with ferric sulfate leaching preferentially along fissures or grain boundaries. The kinetics were found to be linear over an extended period, rather than parabolic as reported elsewhere. An explanation of the observed phenanena is proposed using the electrochemical theory of leaching, and experimental measurement of the mixed potential of the mineral during leaching.

Jan 1, 1976

By M. Omneya El-Hussaini, M. Galal Abdel Wahab, A. Mohamed Mahdy, M. Fathi El Shahat

"Um-Gheig Pb-Zn representative sample was collected from the main adite of Um-Gheig mine along Red Sea coast in Egypt. Its chemical analysis shows that, it contains 16% Zn, 2.3% Pb, 0.1% Cd and 0.1% B as elements of interest. After H2SO4 agitation leaching, the chemical composition of Um- Gheig Pb-Zn deposit ore residue assayed 2.26% Pb, 1.5% Zn, 0.085 % B and 0.01% Cd. This residue was leached with 20% HCl at S/L ratio 1/3 for 2 hours at 80o C. The chloride leach liquor was found to contain 18 g/l Pb, 13 g/l Zn, 0.1 g/l Cd and 0.75 g/l B with the corresponding leaching efficiencies 79%, 86%, 100% and 88% respectively. Lead was precipitated from the chloride leach liquor using concentrated H2SO4 to obtain PbSO4 with precipitation efficiency 96%. While boron was extracted by the selective resin Amberlite IRA743 with loading efficiency of 80%. On the other hand, Zn and Cd were precipitated using Na2S solution with 86.7% and 100% recovery efficiencies respectively.IntroductionLead-zinc ores occur in Egypt in a few localities distributed along the Red Sea coast between El Qusier and Ras Banas.. The reserve of the ore deposits has been estimated by Soviet and German Experts to be about 900,000 Ton, [1]. Onal et al., [2] recovered Pb from Pb–Zn sample containing 10.17 % Pb and 10.98 % Zn from Aladag in Turkey. El-Sherif, [3] used concentrated HCl to leach lead-zinc ore sample of Um-Sammuki area in Egypt. As had been published by Marchioretto et al. [4], the precipitation of heavy metals with lime, sulfide and caustic soda are the most commonly used economical methods for metal removal. Lead was completely removed from the anaerobically digested sludge by precipitation with NaOH and Na2S at waste water treatment plants. Mahdy et al., [5] had successfully extracted boron from the bittern solution of Qaron Lake by ion exchange resin (Amberlite IRA 743). The extraction of boron was mainly depending upon the pH value. They extracted 80% of boron at pH 5.5, while at pH 3.9 about 74% boron was extracted. Kabay et al. [6] used the column-mode to remove 1g/l of boron from geothermal waste water of the Kizildere-Geothermal Power Station by using Diaion CRB 02 Nglucamine- type chelating resins. In this regard, the removal of lead, cadmium and boron allow the residue to be reclassified as non hazardous material."

Jan 1, 2008

By Bogdan Petkovic, Boban Todorovic

In the early 90's a completely unknown problem was encountered at the converter Department: it was a chronic shortage of the cold copper charge needed for the second operating period. A high temperature operating regime was caused which further provoked a chain of consequences such as a drastic drop of the number of operations in campaigns. The consumption of repair bricks reached the quantity of 8.3955 kg / tonne of anode Cu. In 1994, we won the process of cold material smelting during the "copper" blowing [2]. The number of operations per campaign reached 180-200 again. Also in 1994 we won the process of smelting cold materials to obtain "tin" blowing with the purpose of completing their processing cycle [2]. During the period 1994 – 2007 a total of 107,845 tonnes of cold material were remelted to make copper and 56,794 tonnes were re-smelted to obtain "tin". Upon synthesizing these two processes, a completely new model was achieved in 2005, by Bogdan Petkovic, which entirely utilized all available energy of the Peirce-Smith (PS) converters of the Bor Copper Smelter and now represents the basis of the time cycle. The cold material now enters the converter plant, copper recovery is increased and the method itself is environmentally friendly. 167

Jan 1, 2009

By Michael A. Krstich

A soil washing pilot plant to treat soils at the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) owned Fernald Environmental Management Project (FEMP), was designed based on extensive bench-scale testing. The system's design incorporated a combination of physical separation and' chemical extraction processes and was tested on two soils. The textural composition of the two soils was approximately 20 percent sand, 60 percent silt, and 20 percent clay. Since this grain size distribution was not considered optimum for physical separation techniques, thesoil washing pilot plant had to be designed with selected equipment to provide specific soil size fractions during processing operations. A trommel, vibrating screen deck, centrifuge, and attrition scrubber were used in the system to selectively separate specific soil size fractions at 4.75, 2, 0.3, and 0.02 millimeters (mm). The trammel used high pressure water [1000 pounds per square inch (psi)] during the initial step of the process to reduce soil aggregates to single grain composition, separate out greater than 4.75 mm gravel, and dislodge chemical contaminants from the individual soil particles. The vibrating double-screen deck provided 2 - 4.75 and 0.3 - 2 mm soil fractions that, when combined, averaged greater than 75 percent solids for both soils. The centrifuge was designed to take the less than 0.3 mm soil slurry from the screen deck and produce a particle size of 0.02 mm. The centrifuge produced a high solids stream that averaged greater than 70 percent solids for both soils. These 0.02 to 0.3 mm soil solids from the centrifuge were combined with the 0.3 to 4.75 mm soil solids from the screen deck and processed through the attrition scrubber. The data collected from the pilot-plant operation was used to aid in the design of a full-scale system and was instrumental in formulating full-scale process operations and the selection of equipment.

Jan 1, 1995

By Thomas J. Keefe, O&apos

Results of metal electrodeposition experiments conducted at the University of Brussels and University of Missouri-Rolla over the past few years are reviewed in terms of the relationship and impact on industrial processes. Examples are cited from common electrowinning, electrorefining, or electroplating operations for copper, zinc, nickel, cobalt and silver. The following topics are considered : metallographic structure, crystallographic texture, surface morphology, nucleation and growth, additive monitoring and effects, high current density, substrate related properties including adhesion. The studies were conducted on a variety of scales from laboratory beaker tests to full sized pilot and industrial operating plants.

Jan 1, 1993

"Mechanical alloying (MA) synthesizing technology and thennohydrogen processing (THP) were utilized to produce nanocrystalline Ti-MMC's reinforced by TiB intermetallic compound by using TiH2-B powder mixtures. Powders MA'ed up to 8 hours were examined by X-ray diffraction and SEM study. All MA'ed powders afterwards were HIP'ed at 700, 800 and 950EC for 1 hour. Detailed XRD, SEM and TEM study of the samples were carried out to determine the structure and micrography of the Ti-TiB MMC material processed by MA+THP approach followed by HIP'ing at high temperatures.IntroductionThe fiber reinforced titanium base composites [1,2] which possess a great resistance to high temperature have been investigated. In these studies fibers of C and SiC were used as reinforcing materials. However, these fibers react with Ti-matrix at elevated temperature resulting in product formation at the interface between the matrix and the fiber. Because of the chemical reactions, strength of the product MMC material diminishes.In conventional techniques of whisker reinforced composite material production, the mixtures of matrix metal powders and dispersed fibers are consolidated by hot pressing, HIP and/or hot extrusion. These techniques, however, have some shortcomings. Hard and brittle fibers could be broken during mixing cycle of the processing. Consolidation techniques could also be the cause for fiber breakdown. Attaining of the uniform dispersion of fibers into the metal matrix is not an easy process. The chemical reactions at elevated temperature exposures in the interface between the matrix material and fiber reinforcement cause product formations leading to poor mechanical properties."

Jan 1, 1998

By Manjie Li, Mingrui Yang, Haijun Peng, Shuxing Qiu, Wei Liu, Shengfu Zhang

It is important to produce and utilize highly reactive coke in order to reduce the energy consumption and CO2 emissions through improving shaft efficiency in blast furnace. The present study aimed to investigate the transformation of iron minerals and properties of iron coke (the coke mixed iron ore fines). Along with the increase of iron ore fines, cold strength displayed a slight downtrend and the pore structure wasn’t inferred to be a major factor affected the properties of iron coke. During carbonization, the majority of mixed iron oxides were reduced to metallic iron by CO and H2 and the degree of metallization achieved to approximately 75%. Nevertheless, produced metallic iron was oxidized by pure CO2 during gasification. Iron coke reactivity index (ICRI) was obviously enhanced and the iron coke strength after reaction (ICSR) drastically decreases, which were also significantly influenced by crystal structure of carbon.

Jan 1, 2015

By Huayi Yin, Wang. Dihua, Wei Xiao, Xuhui Mao, Diyong Tang

"The world production of crude steel reached 1.55 billion tons in 2012,which generated ~2.5 billion tons of CO2. Electrochemical metallurgy especially through high temperature molten salt electrolysis with renewable electricity stands for a great opportunity for producing “green” metals. In recent years, electrolytic production of iron without emission of CO2 in different molten salt systems has been reported. A cost-affordable inert anode is the key to produce acceptable eco-friendly iron by the novel molten salt electrolysis processes. Based on the authors’ research, this paper will discuss iron production by molten salt electrolysis using a nickel alloy inert anode. On the other hand, the paper also covers a novel molten salt CO2 capture and electrochemical transformation (MSCC-ET) process, in which CO2 is effectively converted to value-added carbon and oxygen in a molten bath using a cost-affordable nonconsumable SnO2 anode.1. IntroductionEnergy and materials are cornerstones to support the development of human society. The traditional primary metal production, especially iron and steel, and electricity production are mainly based on the reactions between carbon (coal) and oxygen (represented by equations (1) and (2) respectively), which produce huge amount of CO2.MxOy + 0.5y C = x M + 0.5y CO2 (g) + Q1 ( 1 )C + O2 (g) = CO2 (g) + Q2 ( 2 )In 2012, the world production of crude steel reached 1.55 billion tons, of which 46.3 %, ~0.7165 billion tons were produced in China. Based on the average level of 1.7t CO2 emission per ton steel, more than 1 billion tons of CO2 generated from steel industry in China in the year. Besides the iron and steel industry, thermal power plant leads the CO2 emission in both USA and China. The total consumed electricity in China increased to 4959 billion kWh in 2012, ~70% of it was from coal fired power plant. The average CO2 emission for electricity production in the typical thermal power plant in China is around 0.78 kg kWh-1. It accounts for ~ 3.868 billion tons of CO2 emission from thermal power plant in 2012 in China."

Jan 1, 2014