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By Thomas M. Barczak

This report chronicles the historical development of longwall mining in the United States and speculates on future developments to the turn of the century. Five eras of technological development during the modern period are described and analyzed. These eras discuss the development of (1) mechanized extraction, (2) self advancing roof supports, (3) high capacity roof supports, (4) shield supports, and (5) system automation. Current trends are analyzed in terms of: longwall utilization, production capability, support capacity, face widths, and new technological developments. From these analyses, the future of longwall mining to the year 2000 is speculated. It is concluded that longwall mining will continue to grow in importance during the next decade and that the next major technological milestone will be the realization of a fully automated longwall mining system.

Jan 1, 1992

By Miklos D. G. Salamon

If all stratifications are horizontal, the computation of surface deformation induced by coal mining involves the prediction of roof and floor convergence and then the transfer of the effects of this relative displacement to the surface through the use of the appropriate influence functions. A laminated model, in the form of a quasi- continuum, provides a simple means of computing the approximate convergence distribution and leads to the Gaussian distribution as the influence function. The ideas presented in this paper represent a subtle but fundamental generalization of the influence function Method. It is postulated that the influence of a small area of extraction is proportional to the roof and floor convergence and not to the thickness extracted. This difference in definition removes many conceptual difficulties associated with the influence function method. To demonstrate the utility of the model, the surface disturbances induced by the extraction of a parallel sided long panel are derived. Formulae giving subsidence, tilt, horizontal displacement and strain are given.

Jan 1, 1989

By Ken Mills

A program of stress change and roadway deformation monitoring was undertaken to measure the forward abutment load distribution about a retreating longwall panel at Dartbrook Mine. The results of this monitoring allow roadway conditions observed at various stages of mining to be ranked according to the estimated vertical stress they have experienced. This ranking also provides a means to predict and visualise future roadway conditions at various stages of mining. This paper presents the results of the monitoring and describes the approach developed to predict future roadway conditions. The monitoring results show the vertical stress distribution associated with the front abutment from a longwall goal decreases exponentially away from the goaf edge. The vertical stress distribution peaks at the goaf edge at 5 to 6 MPa stress increase and decreases to 1 MPa within 50 m becoming imperceptible beyond 100 m By scaling this measured distribution to reflect the loading environment, the vertical stress can be estimated for different overburden depths and different stages of mining. Photographs of roadway conditions at particular vertical stress levels provide a way to visualise roadway conditions at various stages of mining in the future

Jan 1, 2000

By Anthony Iannacchione

Designing coal pillars to provide resistance against overburden loads has long been an aim of rock mechanics engineers. The need for accurate pillar strength models has become more urgent as greater overburdens are encountered and pillar sizes grow larger. Current pillar design models differ widely in their predictions of the trend in pillar strength with increasing pillar width-to-height ratio. The goal of this paper is to evaluate current pillar strength theories, using a comprehensive data base of stress measurements from coal pillars. The stress measurements indicate that coal pillars maintain relatively high stresses near the ribline, and that the stress gradient within the yield zone can be approximated as a straight line. Several problems are identified for further research, including calibration procedures for different types of stress cells, strain softening behavior in the yield zone, and measurement of stresses in the cores of very wide pillars.

Jan 1, 1992

By G. M. Molinda

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is being investigated for the potential to determine roof hazards in underground mines. GPR surveys were conducted at four field sites with accompanying ground truth in order to determine the value of GPR for roof hazard detection. The resolution of the current system allows detection of gross roof fractures (>63 cm (s1/4 in) zone) or rider beds in coal measure roof. Data quality is not yet sufficient to detect small bed separations or subtle lithologic changes in the roof. Differences in data quality are discussed, as well as suggestions for collecting improved data.

Jan 1, 1996

By John Feddock

A recent increase in energy demand has resulted in the rapid growth of coal consumption in the People?s Republic of China (PRC), which is the largest coal producer and consumer in the world. Reportedly, the safety issues in Chinese coal mines have been improving, but the number of fatalities and serious injuries continues to be alarmingly high. The number of fatalities from catastrophic accidents have prompted researchers to review the Chinese mine safety situation and to look for potential solutions. Marshall Miller & Associates, Inc. (MM&A), along with various collaborators, has investigated these issues as part of its work on various projects in the PRC and has discussed the concerns with relevant Chinese officials. Preliminary investigations by MM&A of coal mine accidents during 2001?2006 in the PRC indicate that 65%-78% of the total fatalities were the result of gas explosions and roof falls in underground mines. Even though the drainage of methane has been practiced for decades, current practices do not always produce satisfactory results due to technical constraints and equipment limitations. Based on prior experience of in-seam degasification at the Daning Coal Mine located in Shanxi province, MM&A believes that in-seam directional drilling technology can be a viable solution to degas the low-permeability Chinese coal deposits. This paper 1) reviews current Chinese coal mine safety conditions, 2) analyzes the advantages/disadvantages of current degasification practices in China, and 3) presents the pre-mining degasification practices for the longwall panel at the Daning Coal Mine.

Jan 1, 2007

By Christopher Mark

Pillar recovery continues to be one of the more hazardous activities in underground coal mining. Safety requires that the roof above the intersection remain stable until after the pillar has been extracted. Artificial supports (timbers and Mobile Roof Supports) arc essential to roof stability, but so is the final remnant stump or pushout. Traditional mining practices usually called for the complete extraction of the final stump, but the recent trend (both in the U.S. and internationally) seems to be towards mining plans that leave a remnant stump. For this study, a sample of roof control plans from the Mine Health and Safety Administration (MSHA) Coal Districts were analyzed to determine current pillar recovery practices. Both full- and partial- extraction plans were included. Special attention was paid to whether plans require that a final stump be left, and whether requirements regarding the dimensions of the remnant stump are included. Foreign experience with final stumps is also summarized. It seems that the risk of major pillar falls can often be reduced by leaving final stumps that are large enough to protect the intersection, but small enough that they do not inhibit the caving of the gob. Because final stumps are often irregular in shape, a new approach for estimating their strength is described. Analyses were conducted to assess the effect of seam height and depth of cover on the potential variation in the size of remnant stumps.

Jan 1, 2001

By Da Zhao Gu

An important problem in rock engineering is to control the properties of artificial rock. A compaction technique for casting artificial rock specimens with controlled properties is described, i.e. using a compression-testing machine to compress the mixture. Uniform density is necessary to achieve uniformity of properties of the specimens, and uniform density can be obtained by using the specific pressing method presented. Rebound and borax content are important to the technique and have been studied as well.

Jan 1, 1992

By Thomas H. Wilson

Common offset and refraction seismic data have been collected over four longwall panels at two different locations within West Virginia. Surveys prior, during and after mining were made in both areas. The velocity of seismic wave propagation in the overburden rocks is observed to decrease in response to panel emplacement. Variations in the magnitude of this reduction, apparent as an additional first arrival time delay in the after mining common offset surveys, do not appear to correlate directly to the amount of subsidence that has occurred. Velocity reduction and signal absorption zones are also produced in the cover beyond the panel face over the adjacent unmined areas. Signal absorption and velocity reduction zones have also been observed over room and pillar entry areas between mined panels. Velocity reduction zones have been- observed beyond the panel face in both shallow and deep mines, but the signal absorption zone has not been observed over the deeper mine. Changes in the compressional wave velocities of the cover rocks are associated with changes in their elastic moduli. Differences between borehole derived and surface seismic derived interval velocities, are related to differences in the properties of the bulk volume sampled by each method.

Jan 1, 1988

By J. M. Krese

This paper gives an overview of the National REAP program emphasizing the program's current status and future plans. A brief historical review of the program will be given containing roof-fall accident trends and statistics. The latest developments in roof control technology and training as it affects the REAP program will be presented. A brief discussion concerning some effects of the implementation of the amendments to Part 75, CFR, concerning roof support is included.

Jan 1, 1988

By Dave Minney

The South African mines health and safety regulations require that mine management establish a quality management system for rock support material. Quality control of resin capsules used as a support medium in South Africa is specified under SA National Standards No 1534. Experience has shown that this specification, while addressing the chemical and physical aspects of the products, but does not address the required performance criteria. In order to address this shortcoming, the industry has put a lot of emphasis on short encapsulation pull tests, performed insitu, in the underground workings of the mine. This is also fraught with many shortcomings, particularly as regards site availability, cost and repeatability of results. To try and address these issues, the Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering at Pretoria University were approached to develop equipment and machinery that could produce reliable, repeatable results in a laboratory environment which reasonably simulates installation practice underground. The test method is based on the ASTM F432-95 Strength Index test, but modified to use push test rather than pull tests. The paper describes development of the test method and the preliminary results and findings of the work.

Jan 1, 2007

By Holger Witthaus

Various seam conditions had been examined during longwall production at RAG German hard coal mines. Based on the field data a prediction method was developed considering separation planes as influencing factors for roof falls at the face. The characteristics, orientation, and density of separation are important factors on the occurrence of roof falls. In addition to geological influences, the performance parameters and geometry of support must be considered and optimized for the prediction and prevention of roof falls in a longwall face. Based on detailed macro- and microscopic investigations of e coal seams considering various ranks of carbonization, the origin and characteristics of separation planes are determined and a strata-specific influence on roof fall is interpreted. It was assessed that the coal face fracturing and displacement caused by the stress depend on the floor and roof strata conditions due to activation of the existing separation planes. Field studies are shown giving an idea of influences by advance rates of the longwall face, support delay and hydraulic pressure to the roof control in longwall faces in depth of more than 3000 ft. The analysis includes the application of specific software developed for longwall roof fall prediction as a result of a European research project. The software allows a laminar graphic display of roof fall probability, which is used for recognition of risk areas and risk management.

Jan 1, 2009

By Dakota D. Faulkner

Cable bolts have been very effective in mine ground control. Non-tensioned and tensioned cable bolts are now used for both primary and supplemental bolting (Suder, 2001; Mirabile, 2010). In the United States, cable bolts are typically installed in either 1 or 1-3/8 in. (25 or 35 mm) diameter drill holes and, if point anchored only, are utilized with 4 - 5 equivalent feet (1.2 - 1.5 m) of resin. Cable bolts can be tensioned by various methods such as using an expansion shell mounted on the cable or post-tensioned with a hydraulic cable tensioning unit. In recent years there has been a desire to completely encapsulate the cable bolt for corrosion protection. Fully encapsulating a cable bolt with traditional resins can be very difficult. Keystone Mining Services, LLC (KMS) and Jennmar Corporation have developed a new cable bolt that can be fully encapsulated during installation or post-installation with polyurethane (PUR). The Fully-Grouted Cable Bolt (FGCB)* is equipped with a special head that allows the injection of PUR up through the cable bolt head and cable strands, completely encapsulating the cable and filling the drill hole. Although the FGCB was initially developed to fully encapsulate the cable for corrosion protection, it was also found that by modifying the cable bolt head and injection pressure, PUR could be injected into cracks and fissures of the strata to stabilize the roof. This paper details the development of this system and three underground applications under different ground conditions.

Jan 1, 2012

By Christopher Mark

A new method for the design of longwall pillars, called "Analysis of Longwall Pillar Stability" (ALPS), is described. The method is the final result of a research program that included two major field studies, extensive reanalysis of data from other in situ measurements, and detailed evaluations of available pillar design methods. The key problem addressed by ALPS is estimation of the abutment loads applied to longwall pillars. Based on underground stress measurements made in mines in three states, equations for predicting the magnitude, distribution, and time-of-arrival of abutment loads are proposed. Stress measurements are also used to evaluate empirical pillar strength formulas for use in longwall pillar design. ALPS has been verified by application to case histories from several mining areas, and examples taken from the Pittsburgh and the Blue Creek seams are presented. Step-by-step guidelines for using this design method are also given.

Jan 1, 1987

By Frank Chase

Longwall mining has gained the reputation as being the safest extraction method in underground coal mines. However, one of the most difficult tasks associated with longwall mining is moving the face once a panel is completed. Based on Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) fatality reports since 1996, longwall face recovery operations have claimed the lives of 5 U.S. miners and have resulted in numerous injuries. Recovery operations can be hazardous because they involve moving large pieces of equipment in very confined spaces. They are also conducted in highly stressed ground conditions due to front abutment loads generated by panel extraction. Shield removal is the most hazardous operation during face recovery because miners are constantly exposed to the unpredictable gob edge. To protect the miners, one or more walking shields, cribbing and/or other supplemental roof and standing supports are typically employed as breaker line supports as each shield is removed. At the Harris No. 1 Mine in southern WV, mobile roof supports (MRS?s) have been used in lieu of traditional walking shields on 17 face moves since 1997. MRS?s are shield-like support units mounted on crawler tracks and are commonly used during room-and-pillar retreat mining operations. For longwall recovery, the two biggest advantages that MRS?s have over traditional walking shields are that they are remotely controlled and are highly maneuverable. MRS?s have contributed to safer shield recovery and shorter move times at the Harris No. 1 Mine. This paper will address both the safety and the operational issues associated with MRS usage during shield recovery. It will also discuss new developments, including the use of the inherently safer battery powered MRS?s, which have been recently certified by the Mine Safety and Health Administration.

Jan 1, 2007

By V. Bondarenko

The forecasting of floating earth inrush into the working is to a great extent connected with the investigation of the rock mass stressed-deformed state around the working. The aim of such investigations is to estimate the carrier ability of the protective layer (which is stabilized by the physico-chemical mode of fixing) and to determine it's thickness, which is to be sufficient to present the floating earth inrush into the working. We consider the protective layer to have exhausted it's carrier ability if the rocks of this layer reached the overlimit phase of deformation and it's greater part (section), which adjoins the working. is destroyed up to the limit of the remaining strength. So, the aim of investigations is to determine the size of the rocks inelastic deformation zone in the roof of the working. It is necessary to take into account the presence of water saturated seam in the roof and the overlimit characteristics of the rocks, their ability to lower the carrier capacity up to the level of the remaining strength.

Jan 1, 1996

By Alexander Garcia

Roof and rib falls are the basic ground control hazards associated with underground roadways during development, stand up and, if applicable, retreat. Falls of ground can happen following the deterioration of supports or rock conditions over time, and particularly as a consequence of continuing rock deformation and/ or failure to install adequate support. Once developed, the risk of a failure is increased due to the effects of time as well as to front abutment stresses through retreat mining. The measurement of strata displacement using monitoring equipment is a form of ground control risk assessment. These monitoring systems are active, or ?live?, in a sense that risk is assessed real-time. However, there are circumstances in which falls of ground can occur without the prior recording of excessive movement. In addition, monitoring equipment is typically placed at set intervals, and strata conditions could vary between these points. Consequently, a visual assessment of other factors contributing to the risk of a fall should be made in order to complete a ground control risk assessment. Such surveys are usually one-off, thus capturing roadway conditions at one particular point in time. Ongoing deterioration is not documented through such one-time surveys, and there is a requirement for real-time or live assessment where a system is in place so that observation data can be updated on an ongoing basis, and a useful summary of prevailing roadway states produced on demand. To address the shortfalls of one-time assessments, a ?live? computerbased quantitative ground control risk assessment process has been developed. It combines visual observations processed in a quantitative manner with existing monitoring data into an interpretable output which indicates zones of roadway where there is an increased risk of a fall of ground from the roof or sides, so that remedial action can be carried out to mitigate that risk. Through improved procedures, it is now possible to generate a ground control risk assessment for each roadway, and one which can be updated frequently. This paper aims to outline and describe the assessment process.

Jan 1, 2012

By Collin Stewart

Bowie Resources maintains one of the most pro-active ground control programs in the U.S. mining industry today. Its guiding philosophy is that everyone in the organization, from the miners at the face all the way through the top management, are involved in ground control. Some of the unique elements of the Bowie ground control program include: ? Roof bolt operators log the stratigraphy of test holes in nearly every cut. These ?lithgraphs? are used by section foremen to determine the need for additional roof support, and they are entered into the geologic data base for use in geologic modeling and mapping. ? Underground core drilling is conducted to obtain data for CMRR and stability maps. ? Weekly ?Quality? meetings, involving mine management and technical staff, are held to ensure that ground control information is integrated into production operations. The paper will describe the program in detail, discussing the involvement of roof bolters, section foremen, surveyors, technical staff, and production managers. It will also show how the program has contributed to the mine planning process. Case histories of successful ground control interventions will be discussed.

Jan 1, 2006

By Brad R. Blair

This paper will review impacts on longwall design and ground stability assessment due to advances in mine automation and sensing technology. Several new approaches to the prediction and monitoring of longwall panel and gateroad stability have recently become mature, and are ready for application in problematic ground control situations. These methods are revealing significant detail regarding deformation and failure mechanics of critical underground structures. Examples of how these technologies have worked successfully will be given, and applications for the use of these tools for cost-effective engineering design and monitoring will be suggested.

Jan 1, 1996

By G. I. Gritsko

In this paper we consider the elements of a distributed information geomechanic monitoring system which is used in computerized mine planning and mining operations control. The automated system is a technical means of geomechanic monitoring, as a complex system of regulated observations, estimation and prediction of geomechanic state of rock mass and workings during underground mining of coal deposits. Geomechanic monitoring at coal mines and the automated system execute data collection, analysis and calculations of geomechanic situation in the panel during planning, development and carrying-out of mining operations for ensuring geotechnical stability of underground mining.

Jan 1, 1996