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By H. C. Otis

During the past year or two considerable time and money have been spent in developing equipment for tubing large-volume high-pressure oil and gas wells without loss of production. That the efforts have met with success is proved by the fact that any properly cased well, regardless of its production or regardless of its rock pressure or working pressure, can now be safely tubed with no appreciable loss of production, provided experienced crews handle the new equipment. It is conceded that a far better gas-oil ratio can be secured by flowing a well through tubing of a proper diameter—the diameter of the tubing depending, of course, upon the volume of fluid and gas and the depth of the well—than by the more usual method of installing a choke at the mouth of the well. Where possible it is becoming the practice to bring wells in through tubing, though in the majority of instances this is not feasible. In many instances it has developed, after a well has been brought in through tubing, that the tubing installed is either too large or too small for the most efficient operation or that the well had not been drilled deep enough. The equipment described in this paper, in the hands of experienced men, permits the tubing of these wells after they have been brought in, with the size of tubing then determined by actual observation to be best suited for each particular well, and with no danger of the well getting out of control, of catching fire, of drilling itself deeper, or of any loss of production. The deeper the flowing production with the consequent future higher lifting costs, the more essential it is that the size of tubing used be such as to give the best possible gas-oil ratio. The ability to bring in these deep wells through the casing and then, immediately after their completion, regardless of volume or pressure, to tube them with the size of tubing that permits the most efficient use of the gas present will doubtless save many dollars. Uses for the New Equipment The equipment permits a further step in the operation of wells where the conservation of gas is of major importance. Perhaps 3-in. tubing

Jan 1, 1930

The National Mine Health and Safety Academy near Beckley, W. Va., is dedicated to reducing accidents and improving health conditions in the mining industry through education and training. Though this basic mission remains unchanged, the Academy now serves a much broader mining community than it did when established in the late 1960s. From its original emphasis on training federal coal, metal, and nonmetal mine safety inspectors, the Academy has expanded its programs to reach mining industry and labor representatives, state agency employees, and university students taking mining-related courses. The Academy's resident programs, short courses, seminars, and continuing education courses cover a wide range of subjects and various experience levels, but all have been developed with one idea in mind - to reduce accidents and health hazards through education and training of the widest possible audience.

Jan 11, 1979

By J. Leslie Goodier

The International Law of the Continental Shelf, so far ratified by 35 nations, extends the national boundary of any coastal nation to the edge of the continental shelf, this normally being at a continuous water depth of 200 m. The Law further extends this boundary to include the floor of the deep ocean to any depth that can be mined by advanced mining technology. In effect, proof of mining can constitute proof of ownership of the subaqueous land and the minerals on or below the sea floor. Irrespective of the fact that present technology is too limited to permit mineral exploitation in the high seas-and the law regarding the right to mine appears hazy-the U. S. Treasury Department's Bureau of Customs, has a ruling that would further deter mining operations on the high seas. This law contends that minerals mined on the continental shelf of the United States are actually mined within the continental United States and are free of tariff, but mined products or other articles obtained from the ocean or the sea floor beyond the continental shelf, if brought into this nation, must be considered as imported and are subject to such customs duties as are applicable under the tariff schedules of the United States.

Jan 7, 1968

G. M. TAYLOR,* Colorado Springs, Co1o.-I do not think the plan outlined in this paper would work at Cripple Creek. Most of our men have had a pretty good education. The Cripple Creek district is a lessee district-I do not think there is one mine operating in Cripple Creek to-day that does not have the leasing system. We have as many men leasing on our property as we have mining and every plan who is working for wages is looking for n lease-everyman has mined for him- self, he has been his on7n boss on n lease, either on our own property or

Jan 1, 1919

By J. D. Rice, H. H. Rachford, G. H. Bruce, D. W. Peaceman

The problem of unsteady-state gas flow through porous media leads to a second-order non-linear partial differential equation for which no analytical solution has been found. In this paper a stable numerical procedure is developed for solving the equation for production of gas at constant rate from linear and radial systems. An electronic digital computer is used to perform the numerical integration using an implicit form of an approximating difference equation. Solutions are presented in graphical form for various values of dimension-less parameters. The solutions are compared with the laboratory study of gas depletion in a linear system. INTRODUCTION Production of fluids from porous rock reservoirs is essentially a transient process. Transient gradients develop as soon as production begins, and further withdrawals continue to cause disturbances which propagate throughout the reservoir, each adding in some way to the prior ones. A correct mathematical analysis of this behavior is complicated by the fact that the transient or unsteady-state flow of compressible fluids must be described by difficult second-order partial differential equations. As a practical matter, three distinctly different cases arise: 1. Flow of single-phase liquid 2. Flow of gases 3. Multiphase flow The first of these has been found to give a linear second-order equation similar to the well-known heat flow equation. where 7 is fluid density, 8 is time, and a a constant for the system, provided d 7 = r cdp, where the compressibility, c, is constant over the range of pressure, p, considered. Solutions of Equation (1) for both linear and radial flow are available in several forms.2'3' On the other hand. the second case, which is the flow of gas, gives a non-linear second-order equation, the solution of which is not known. Although a number of approximate solutions have been proposed, each is limited in value by the associated simplifying assumptions. Inasmuch as the analysis of transient flow is limited to liquid systems, a solution of the second case is necessary if further progress is to be made in studying underground fluid movement. For this reason a solution of Equation (2) was undertaken by means of numerical integration of approximating difference equations. BASIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION Equation (2; is derived by combining the equation of continuity, the perfect gas law, and Darcy's law to give the basic differential equation Strictly speaking, the fluids present in a gas reservoir are not perfect gases. Furthermore, there are indications that over certain velocity ranges, Darcy's law is not applicable. It would not be practicable. however, to attempt to obtain numerical solutions which would take into account all the possible variations from these laws which could occur in actual systems. The

Jan 1, 1953

By P. A. Beck, A. Merlini

Quantitative texture determinations were made for rolled and for rolled and annealed strips of 3, 6, and 10 pct Zn brasses. The main components of the rolling texture gradually shift over a wide composition range from the orientation characteristic of copper to that of 70-30 brass. At least the main features of the corresponding gradual changes in the annealing texture may be accounted for qualitatively on the basis of the oriented growth theory of annealing textures. All the oriented nucleation-type theories are notably less successful in accounting for the observed textures. EARLIER investigations by von Goeler and Sachs,' Dahl and Pawlek,' and Brick, Martin, and Angier" suggested that the annealing texture of copper is more sensitive to the addition of solute elements than the rolling texture. It was reported3 that the cube texture changes over into a brass-type recrys-tallization texture on addition of about 1 pct Zn, while the deformation texture changes only at about 5 pct Zn. Such behavior would be difficult to reconcile with any theory of annealing texture formation that relates the annealing texture to the deformation texture. In particular, the oriented growth theory of the cube texture" is based on a certain orientation relationship between the cube texture and the main components of the deformation texture which could not be reconciled with the reported behavior of low brasses. It was, therefore, of interest to re-examine these textures by means of the quantitative methods now available. The deformation and annealing textures of rolled a brasses with approximately 3, 6, and 10 pct Zn have been determined in terms of (111) and (200) pole figures. Experimental Methods The chemical analyses of the Cu-Zn alloys of commercial purity used in the present work are given in Table I. Chill-cast bars of the tabulated compositions were rolled and annealed according to the following schedule: I—rolling from 1.2 to 1.02 in. thickness, 15 pct reduction area, annealing 15 min at 450°C; 2— rolling from 1.02 to 0.867 in. thickness, 15 pct reduction area, annealing 15 min at 450°C; 3—rolling from 0.867 to 0.600 in. thickness, 31 pct reduction area, annealing 2 hr at 540°C; 4—rolling from 0.600 to 0.400 in. thickness, 33 pct reduction area, annealing 2 hr at 480°C. In the final straight rolling of 96.25 pct reduction area, the strips were reversed end to end after each pass. The final annealing temperature was determined for each alloy by annealing specimens of the cold-rolled strips in salt bath for 5 min at varying temperatures. The results of the hardness measurements are given in Fig. 1, where the final annealing temperature used for each alloy in determining the annealing texture is indicated by a cross.

Jan 1, 1956

By A. W. Schlechten, W. J. Kroll

As this paper is written, the only method for the commercial production of lithium metal is by the fusion electrolysis of LiCl-KCl mixtures, as first proposed by Guntz.2 The details of the industrial process have not been made public but Osborg8 stated that an efficiency of more than go pct is obtained with a lithium metal recovery above 95 pct and that the metal is 99.5 pct pure. Pletenev9 gave a power consumption of 66 kw-hr per kilogram of lithium metal produced with a salt consumption of 9 kg of LiCl and 0.4 kg of KCI. Pletenev's figures indicate a somewhat lower recovery than that given by Osborg. In a recent report on German lithium plants, Motock7 gives figures that are also less favorable than those reported by Osborg. At the German plants the lithium recovery in electrolysis was only 83.4 pct, with a power consumption of too kw-hr per kilogram of lithium. The metal averaged only 97 pct pure, with sodium and potassium as the chief impurities. The presence of SO2, SO3, Si02, Ba, Ca, and appreciable amounts of Na and Fe2O3 were especially disturbing in the electrolysis, and it was necessary to run the cell for some time to eliminate most of these impurities and condition the bath. It may be noted here that most of these impurities do not interfere with a thermal reduction process. These facts show that the present method of producing lithium is fairly efficient and would suggest that other methods could not compete. However, fusion electrolysis has certain drawbacks, such as the necessity of supplying costly, low-voltage direct current and of collecting and processing the anodic chlorine if it is not to be wasted. An even greater disadvantage is that lithium chloride must be used for an electrolyte. It is one of the most expensive salts of lithium, since it cannot be produced in anhydrous form by precipitation from aqueous solution, as is done with LiF or Li2CO3. The reduction of lithium by a vacuum process similar to the ferrosilicon method for the production of magnesium would have certain advantages. Small units, such as Pidgeon retorts, would give flexibility of production to meet demand, and a small plant would require moderate capital outlay. There is a possibility of using idle Government-owned magnesium plants for such purposes. The raw materials needed for vacuum thermal reduction would not have to be extremely pure, especially with respect to the iron and calcium content. This paper describes a series of experiments to determine the effectiveness of various agents for the reduction of lithium compounds. The investigation is part of a program of vacuum metallurgy con-

Jan 1, 1947

By W. C. Ellis, M. E. Fine

In the iron-cobalt system there are several property-composition relationships of theoretical importance. The alloys are ferromagnetic exhibiting a maximum saturation at approximately 33 at. pct cobalt;' the interatomic distances at room temperature show large positive deviations from Vegard's rule;2 and in the region of 50 at. pct cobalt there is an order-disorder transition2 which has a large effect on other properties. The thermal expansion data for the system have been reported only from room temperature to 100 C and for this temperature range a minimum in coefticient in the rcgion of 50 at. pct cobalt is well established.3,4,6 This paper reports the expansion properties in the iron-cobalt system for temperatures from 30 to 850°C, shows the correlation with other physical properties, and proposes an explanation for the tcrrelation. Experimental Procedure The thermal expansivities of iron-cobalt alloys in 10 pct steps in composition were determined from 30 to about 850°C. The major series of alloys was prepared by induction melting from Armco iron and cobalt rondelles with the addition of about 0.6 wt pct manganese. This series was supplemented by three compositions: high purity electrolytic iron, high purity electrolytic cobalt, and an alloy of 52.1 wt pct cobalt prepared from the high purity electrolytic iron and electrolytic cobalt by vacuum-melting. The compositions of both series of alloys are given in Table I. The specimens for measurement were prepared from the cast ingots by first hot-swaging followed in most instances by cold-swaging to 0.180-in. diam rod. Some alloys in the region of 5c pct cobalt, because of inherent cold-brittleness, were swaged hot to the final diameter. The expansion specimens were approximately 2 1/2 in. long with flat-ground and polished ends. Before measurement they were annealed in hydrogen for I hr at 900°C. In the apparatus used for the thermal expansivity measurements (Fig I), a modification of that designed by Hidnert and Sweeney,? the differential expausion between the specimen and vitreous silica was measured by a dial micrometer reading to 0.001 mm. An invar fixture supported the dial gauge, and this fixture, in turn, was connected to a split invar collar which supported the outer silica tube. A pyrex "T" was placed over the outcr silica tube and was sealed to the invar collar by Apiezon Q sealing compound. A movable hollow vitreous silica rod which rested on top of the test specimen slid through a flexible rubber diaphragm cemented to the top of the pyrex "T." The specimen rested On a vitreous silica pedestal fused into the outer tube and was kept centered by a silica sleeve. A nonoxidizing atmosphere was obtained by admitting hydrogen into the

Jan 1, 1949

By J. E. Chappelear

We are concerned with the problem of calculating the forces produced by passing waves on a submerged object (in particular a drilling barge) located on the ocean floor. We employ the linearized theory of waves (the Airy1 theory), since solutions are generally more easily obtained in such a theory. It will be indicated how an approximate solution to the problem can be obtained for waves of finite height by use of a linear combination of Airy waves. We shall assume the submerged object has an infinite length, thus neglecting diffraction and making the problem two-dimensional. We find that there is not a considerable difference between our solution and the usual engineering solution. The force, as a function of time, is plotted in Figs. 4 and 5, together with the usual solution for easy comparison. So far, no experiments have been found to compare with the results. As will be shown, the calculations can be extended to waves of finite height (Stokes2-Struik3 waves) in an approximate fashion. This can be done by calculating the force produced by each Fourier component of the wave, separately, and omitting the coupling between the various harmonics produced by Bernoulli's theorem. The problem and its boundary conditions will be briefly stated. We seek a function, +, the velocity potential, which is harmonic, ?2?=0...........(1) and which satisfies the boundary conditions ??/?n =0 .......(2) (the normal derivative of + is zero) on the ocean floor and the sides of the barge, and s??/?y = ?..........(3) on the ocean surface, where s = g/w2........(4) The physical reasons for these choices and an interpretation of ? are given by Lamb.' As previously stated, we assume also that the problem is two-dimensional. We set up our coordinates such that x = 0 is the center of the barge and y = 0 is the ocean floor. The coordinates are shown in Fig. 1, together with the location of the barge on the bottom. Our solution may be decomposed into a function which is symmetric about x = 0,?e, and one which is antisymmetric, +,, ? = ? + ?o...........(5) Thus directly above the barge we have as boundary conditions that for x = 0, ?o = 0, ...........(6) and ??e/?x = 0........(7) Now, far from the barge, we have that (for x positive and assuming the waves are incident from the left) ?e ? Ae cosh ky cos k (x + a) , . . . (8) and ?e ? Ao cosh ky cos k (x + ß) . . . . (9) where + means ". .. approaches ... for x large." Let us put Ae, Ao, and k equal to one, and remember that, in accordance with the derivation of Eq. 3, a sinusoidal time factor is to be supplied. Then we may rewrite Eq. 8 for ?e, and we find that

Jan 1, 1958

By AIME AIME

AT bottom of this page is a photograph recently taken by a student-John E. Stewart-of the most northerly situated college in the world, the Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines. It is situated at College, near Fairbanks, Alaska, approximately on the 65th parallel of latitude, and therefore just south of the Arctic Circle. It is farther north than Hudson Bay, and in about the same latitude as southern Greenland.

Jan 1, 1932

By Kenneth Seaver

Discussion of the paper of KENNETH SEAVER, presented at the San Francisco meeting, September, 1915 and at the New York meeting, February, 1916, and printed in Bulletin No. 105, September, 1915, pp. 1913 to 1927. WILLIAM HUTTON BLAUVELT, Syracuse, N. Y.-I think that Professor Richards' statement regarding the reason for the failure of the Bethlehem ovens was due to a misconception on his part. Silica bricks were not used because the ovens were built under German design and management and it has not been the practice in Europe to use silica brick nor has it been necessary, on account of their lower heats and slower coking time as compared with the present American practice. J. W. RICHARDS, So. Bethlehem, Pa.-While acting as Chairman at the San Francisco meeting, in introducing this paper of Mr. Seaver, I made some remarks in discussion referring to unsuitable brick having been used in a coke plant at So. Bethlehem, Pa., and being the principal cause of the failure of these ovens. This statement having come to the attention of the Didier-March Co. of Perth Amboy, N. J., who furnished the firebrick used in the construction in the original ovens referred to, at the Lehigh Coke Works, near So. Bethlehem, Pa., their. manager, Geo. A. Balz has corresponded with me, and wishes to have placed on record a general denial of the statement referred to. As a matter of justice to the manufacturers of the firebrick, it is but right that their statement should be given as much publicity as my statement which has been objected to, and I take pleasure in placing upon record the statement of Mr. Balz, general manager for Didier-March Co., extracted from a letter to me dated Jan. 14, as follows: "The

Jan 5, 1916

Albert Arents, Alameda, Cal.: From Mr. Furman's description of his crucible-assays I infer that he regards iron nails as a necessary or advisable adjunct. Against such a notion I must beg leave to protest. Nails should not be used in

Jan 1, 1896

By P. Majani, F. P. Kokesh, M. Grosmangin

Determination of the quality of cementation of casing in oil wells in the past has involved inflow and circulation tests to insure that the producing zones were adequately sealed off from the adjacent zones. Existing logging methods, such as temperature and radioactivity surveys, may detect the presence of cement behind the casing. However, the qualities of the cement (i.e., its hardness and particularly its bond to the casing) are not indicated. The new logging method described in this paper operates on the principle that the attenuation of a sonic pulse transmitted by a casing is greatly increased when that casing is bonded to an outer annulus of hard material (such as set cement) which has an appreciably smaller sonic-wave velocity than that of the casing. The down-hole tool contains a source of recurrent sound pulses which are detected by a receiver spaced a few feet from the source The amplitude of the detected casing-borne pulse is measured, and the resulting signal is transmitted to the surface where it is recorded vs depth. Since amplitude is a function of attenuation, the log is readily interpreted. Laboratory studies have shown straightforward relationship between attenuation and such variables as source-detector spacing and per cent of circumference bonded. It is shown that cement not set or not bonded to the casing has compara- tively little attenuating effect. Field examples show not only the cement top, but also the variation in cementation quality below the top. Further, the increase of bonding with time and after squeeze cementation is depicted. The detection of poor cement jobs is confirmed by production tests and by formation-test results. It is anticipated that the method will have wide application in evaluating cementation quality prior to formation testing in completions and recompletions. The analysis it affords may aid in further improving cementation techniques. INTRODUCTION The main purpose of oilwell cementing is to isolate a production zone from other undesirable zones. To investigate whether this purpose has been accomplished, several logging methods have been used such as temperature logs, radioactive tracer logs, etc. While these logs all respond to the presence of cement behind the casing, they do not indicate the degree of bonding of the cement to the casing. Early in the application of sonic logging, it was noticed that considerable attenuation of sound signals takes place in cemented pipe and is often made evident on the standard Sonic log by cycle skipping.' The development of a circuit capable of continuously recording the amplitude of the casing-borne sound signal has made possible an extensive series of laboratory and field tests, which gave the following results. The amplitude of a sound signal after it has traveled in a firmly cemented pipe is only a small fraction of that recorded by the same device in free pipe. This provides a wide spectrum of energy levels; for given local conditions, empirical values of the amplitude can be correlated with the quality of cementation. Interpretations made in this manner generally have been confirmed by production tests, circulation tests and squeeze cementation. The purposes of this paper are to give a general description of the new logging method and to present some laboratory and field results. CYCLE SKIPPING Early attempts to study the quality of the cement behind the casing were performed with a standard Sonic log, which measures the transit time At, and were based on the well known phenomenon of cycle skipping.' Cycle skipping normally is interpreted as being a manifestation of weak signals at the receivers. The log of Fig. 1 was run with the recording instrumentation adjusted to enhance cycle skipping. A mirror-image presentation was used for better visual interpretation. The transit time of sound in steel is about 58 microseconds/ft (corresponding to a velocity of 17,000 ft/ sec), and the portions of the log where this value is recorded are interpreted as zones with no cement bond. Where cycle skipping produces a higher value of At, weak signals (or a high rate of attenuation) are indicated, and a good cement bond may be present. The occurrence of cycle skipping, however, depends too much on instrument adjustment to give a uni-

By Richard Moldenke

Note.—At the request of the American Society for Testing Materials, this paper wau presented at the New York Meeting, February, 1923, in connection with the "A. S. T. M. Tentative Specifications for Foundry Pig Iron" and The Physics of Cast Iron and Its Bearing on All Cast-iron Products and Specifications for Cast Iron," by William R. Webster. The discussion of this paper was not published by the Institute, having been referred to the American Society for Testing Materials, as these papers were again presented for discussion at the meeting of that Society at Atlantic Cit;, June, 1923. The result of these discussions is shown in the following abstract from the Committee A3 report on cast-iron specifications: During the past year, the adaptability of the tentative specifications for pig iron for the steel and the malleable foundry, in addition to the iron foundry proper, have been studied and suitable changes and rearrangements are being made which appear to cover the situation properly. In spite of the experience of foundrymen to the contrary, there is a persistent call from consumers of castinga for defixute compositions for given lines of castings. To respond to this call for information desired by the consumer—information every modern foundryman should have and guide his procedure with—the committee has requested the Sub-committee on General Cast!rigs to take up this matter with a view of constructing tables of analyses rang? for Important lines of foundry product. These analyses ranges however, are to be given as "recommendgd practice" and not intended for actual spkcification. In this way, the consumer of the foundry product will get the information he wants; the furnace-man will be gulded in the production of his pig irons to prepare for analyses ranges which are more closely standardized and have less of "freak" requirements made by Inexperienced metallurgists; and the foundryman will not be bound by chemical requirements he knows will not work out well with his particular reglonal supphes of melting stock. Doctor Moldenke's paper is published in full as it shows clearly the good results of the Institute's work in 1895 and a comparison of the same with the present knowledge of the metallurgy of cast iron—Bradley Stoughton, Chairman, Iron and Steel Committee. In MaRch, 1895, William R. Webster contributed a carefully prepared scheme for the study of the physics of cast iron to the American Institute of Mining Engineers at its Florida meeting. This summary of the interrelation of the chemical and physical characteristics of cast iron with the operations of daily foundry practice caused a wide discussion of the then little understood though universally used material. Mr. Webster has requested the author to bring the subject up to date and, while glad to comply, he must pay that with all the knowledge that has been gained in the quarter century that has passed since the subject was brought to the attention of the Institute—and we now are pretty familiar with cast iron in all its aspects—there is practically noth-

Jan 1, 1923

By Richard Moldenke

Note.—At the request of the American Society for Testing Materials, this paper wau presented at the New York Meeting, February, 1923, in connection with the "A. S. T. M. Tentative Specifications for Foundry Pig Iron" and The Physics of Cast Iron and Its Bearing on All Cast-iron Products and Specifications for Cast Iron," by William R. Webster. The discussion of this paper was not published by the Institute, having been referred to the American Society for Testing Materials, as these papers were again presented for discussion at the meeting of that Society at Atlantic Cit;, June, 1923. The result of these discussions is shown in the following abstract from the Committee A3 report on cast-iron specifications: During the past year, the adaptability of the tentative specifications for pig iron for the steel and the malleable foundry, in addition to the iron foundry proper, have been studied and suitable changes and rearrangements are being made which appear to cover the situation properly. In spite of the experience of foundrymen to the contrary, there is a persistent call from consumers of castinga for defixute compositions for given lines of castings. To respond to this call for information desired by the consumer—information every modern foundryman should have and guide his procedure with—the committee has requested the Sub-committee on General Cast!rigs to take up this matter with a view of constructing tables of analyses rang? for Important lines of foundry product. These analyses ranges however, are to be given as "recommendgd practice" and not intended for actual spkcification. In this way, the consumer of the foundry product will get the information he wants; the furnace-man will be gulded in the production of his pig irons to prepare for analyses ranges which are more closely standardized and have less of "freak" requirements made by Inexperienced metallurgists; and the foundryman will not be bound by chemical requirements he knows will not work out well with his particular reglonal supphes of melting stock. Doctor Moldenke's paper is published in full as it shows clearly the good results of the Institute's work in 1895 and a comparison of the same with the present knowledge of the metallurgy of cast iron—Bradley Stoughton, Chairman, Iron and Steel Committee. In MaRch, 1895, William R. Webster contributed a carefully prepared scheme for the study of the physics of cast iron to the American Institute of Mining Engineers at its Florida meeting. This summary of the interrelation of the chemical and physical characteristics of cast iron with the operations of daily foundry practice caused a wide discussion of the then little understood though universally used material. Mr. Webster has requested the author to bring the subject up to date and, while glad to comply, he must pay that with all the knowledge that has been gained in the quarter century that has passed since the subject was brought to the attention of the Institute—and we now are pretty familiar with cast iron in all its aspects—there is practically noth-

Jan 1, 1923

By G. R. Purdy, J. G. Parr

The intermetallic compound Ti2Co was studied by X-ray diffraction and metallographic techniques. The phase occurs off stoickzometric composition, with its greatest variance at high temperature. The solubility limits of the phase have been cletermined, and an amendment to the titanium-cobalt phase diagram is suggested. THE first intermetnllic compound to appear at the titanium-rich side of the titanium-cobalt system was found by Laves and wallbauml to be Ti2Co. They described this compound as isomorphous with Ti2Ni and Ti2Fe, and demonstrated that it had a face-centered-cubic structure with 96 atoms per unit cell. This contention is supported by the work of Duwez and Taylor2 and Orrell and Fontana3 who also determined the lattice parameter to be about 11.30A. Rostoker4 believed that Ti2Co did not exist, and that the phase considered by the other workers to be Ti2Co was Ti,Co20. However, Orrell and Fontana determined oxygen and nitrogen contents and found that their alloys did not contain sufficient of these elements to produce significant quantities of a stoichiometric oxygen compound. The present investigation was initiated to determine the composition limits of the phase Ti,Co.

Jan 1, 1961

By R. E. Rettger

The area referred to in this paper is the southern part of the Permian Basin lying in southwest Texas and southeast New Mexico (Fig. I). Those fields lying along the northern rim of the basin; namely, the Panhandle fields, are not included. The fields within this area are

Jan 1, 1930

By M. A. Roche

AST fall over half a million tons of ore and rock were broken in one blast at the open pit of the Hudson Bay Mining & Smelting Company's operation, at Flin Flon, Manitoba. The following particulars of the blast, and details of the preparatory work, indicate how an operation of this scope is carried out. The data given, in essentially the present form, were first published by The Canadian Mining Journal. The area blasted was 150 ft. wide and about 700 ft. long. A total of 123 tons of 50 per cent forcite gelatin, in 5 by 16-in. cartridges, was used for the charge. Drilling for the blast was started on May 29, and was completed late in August, requiring 1297 machine shifts for drilling only. Total footage drilled for the shot was over 5 miles of 6-in. hole. The main blast consisted of 232 holes spaced on 17.5-ft.

Jan 1, 1934

By J. B. Wagstaff, R. A. Buchanan, J. F. Elliott

High speed photography through blast-furnace tuyeres showed coke particles moving rapidly. Model studies showed a raceway was formed and gave quantitative results which were correlated with actual blast furnaces. Another study showed the similarity between hanging and the flooding of a packed column. This was explored by models. THE combustion zone before the tuyere in an iron blast furnace is a vital region because here are generated: 1—most of the gases on which the furnace depends to carry out its basic operation of reducing iron ore to the metallic state, and 2—the major fraction of the heat required in the nearby regions of the furnace for the various reduction reactions, the fusion of the slag, and the melting of the iron. Since the greater part of the coke is consumed in this region, the descent of the burden must be greatly affected by the characteristics of the tuyere zone. This region then would seem to be a profitable field for study. Fortunately, a view into this important zone is available to the operator through the tuyere peep sight. Here he sees relatively dark pieces of coke "dancing" in the blast. What he sees is of considerable help in interpreting the behavior of the furnace at a given time but the very rapidly moving particles and the intense radiation obscures what is happening very deep in the zone. This investigation was initiated in the hope that a better understanding of the combustion region could be obtained by using a high speed camera with a maximum speed of 3000 frames per sec. It seemed the best practical method of "slowing down" this characteristically violent action within the highly luminous field. Model studies and tuyere probing also have been used to aid in explaining the observed phenomena. Above the combustion zone, but below the fusion zone, there is probably a region in which the coke is comparatively stationary. Here are zones in which the gases must flow up through the granular bed counter to descending liquid slag and metal. There is no easy way to observe this zone in a blast furnace, but model studies have been of some help in explaining the nature of the zone and the laws governing the flow of the fluids involved. The whole problem is difficult and involved and any approach to a complete solution may require long investigation. This preliminary report has been written, therefore, because it is believed that appreciable progress has already been made that would be of interest to others. Tuyere Studies, Chemistry and Kinetics It is well known from the early work of Kinney and coworkers1,2 that combustion of carbon before the tuyeres appears to occur in two zones: Zone A: C + O, = CO2; AH77°F. = — 14,108 Btu per lb of carbon [I] Zone B: CO2 + C = 2CO; H77°F = + 6,183 Btu per lb of carbon [2] Zone A (Fig. 1) is close to the tip of the tuyere and zone B is somewhat farther back; there being a transition region in which both reactions occur. It is interesting to estimate the rate at which coke is burned before a tuyere with a wind rate of 90,000 cfm in a modern furnace having 18 tuyeres. Approximately 0.55 lb of carbon is consumed by eq 1 per tuyere per sec. A like amount disappears by eq 2 for a total consumption of 1.11 Ib per sec per tuyere. Assuming the coke is 85 pct C and has a bulk density of 30 lb per cu ft, this figure can be converted to a total of 1.30 lb of coke with a bulk volume of 0.043 cu ft disappearing per sec per tuyere. At the temperatures prevailing in the combustion zone (according to Kozlovich,³ he maximum is about 3400°F), the rate at which carbon is con-

Jan 1, 1953

Discussion of the paper of H. R. Barnhurst, presented at the New York Meeting, October, 1913, and printed in Bulletin No. 82, October, 1913, pp. 2523 to 2532. H. R. BARNHURST :-I would say that in that experimental furnace we were trying to adopt the proper form for burning low-volatile coal. I was enabled on one occasion to burn coke having 15 per cent. ash. Tailings, or washings from the preparation of coal for by-product coke ovens, which came to me 52 per cent. ash, were burned without any trouble. So that ash really might be regarded as not burning, but simply diluting the fuel that was there, without doing any particular harm except that we had to put in more of the material to get the same quantity of heat. With anthracite, I burned coal right along with from 24 to 27 per cent. ash, but it took a furnace of peculiar form in which the products of combustion had to be diverted to the point of entrance of the fuel. With an ordinary furnace the fuel is deflagrated by its surroundings as soon as it enters the furnace. In a cement furnace this action is secured by the hot clinker passing clown, and the walls of the kiln are heated upon contact with it, revolving as they do', so that deflagration occurs very quickly in a cement kiln. Deflagration would occur very quickly in an open-hearth furnace also. There is no trouble in burning anthracite coal under those conditions for three or four days successively. It should be very well dried and thoroughly pulverized. Aside from that, there is no trouble. WILLIAM A. EVANS,* Boston, Mass. :-In a 52 per cent. ash, or any high-ash coal, what disposition is made of the ash ? MR. BARNHURST :-Most of it went out through the flues. Some of it remained in the boiler and a quantity remained in the furnace. We raked it out and carried it away. MR. EVANS :-Do you experience the forming of stags in flues with such coal as that?

Jan 12, 1913