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C. Edward Stafford, Chester, Pa.:—Doring all my business life, I have been engaged in the manufacture of Bessemer and open-hearth steels, but, during my long connection with the Shoenberger Steel Co. of Pittsburg, I had some experience in the manufacture of high-grade puddled iron for horseshoes, and in making, by Dr. Otto Wuth's process, extremely pure, low-phosphorus puddled blooms (analyzing from 0.005 to 0.01 per cent. of phosphorus and sulphur), which were melted with low-phosphorus pig-iron in acid open-hearth furnaces, to make extra locomotive fire-box steel. I have also seen the Danks puddlers in operation at different times and places, notably where they were most successful, at the Otis Steel Works, Cleveland, Ohio; then under the management of our friend, Mr. S. T. Wellman. These Danks blooms were made solely for open-hearth melting-stock, to which they were well adapted. (The unavoidable presence of bits of ore-fix imbedded in the mass of the metal always prevents the profitable manufacture of merchant iron from Danks' blooms.) With the experience just described, I was to some degree in position to value fairly the means, methods and results of Mr. Roe's mechanical puddling from the metallurgical or technical and economic points of view, when given an opportunity by Mr. Roe to see his puddling-furnace or machine in operation in Pottstown, Pa. Briefly, the furnace, with water-cooled bottom, is rectangular in plan, about 20 by 8 ft. in the clear, suspended by trunnions at the middle of the long sides, at a height of 17 or 18 ft. above the general level. The oscillation (65" each way from the vertical) is accomplished by geared segments (attached to the downward-projecting side or trunnion-plates) with which engage pinions driven by a reversing engine. The whole section

Jan 1, 1906

By J. S. Fulton

Those who live in steel-mill towns are so accustomed to the sight of flames spouting from the mouth of a Bessemer vessel that they seldom pause to think of the amazing process behind it. Actually cold air is being blown through a hot liquid and, instead of cooling it, raises the temperature of the liquid. When coffee is too hot to drink, we know that blowing on it will cool it, so it was no wonder that when Henry Bessemer (or William Kelly, as your patriotism chooses) first proposed this cycle of steel production, he was considered mad. When Bessemer and Kelly started their investigations around 1852, there was not much practical knowledge of metallurgy and, in consequence, there was wide variation in the product made by their process. It was appreciated that the silicon, carbon and iron were all potential fuels, but not until Mushet discovered the beneficial effects of having manganese in the pig iron did the process really become commercial. Bessemer's patent of 1855 covered a crucibleful of liquid iron into which a refractory tuyere was lowered and the blow started. Since that time virtually every conceivable form of vessel, bottom arrangemerit, tuyere size and location have been suggested or tried. There have been stationary vessels with fixed bottoms, that were side, top or bottom blown; tilting vessels with two sets of side tuyeres at different elevations; vessels like a three-compartmerit septic tank; vessels of a cylindrical form supported on the long axis with tuyeres along the side submerged by a partial rotation of the vessel (this type continues in copper refineries); portable vessels to make the blow in a ladle over a mold in a foundry; a combination of a cupola and converter in one shell, and various other arrangements. But in all these experiments, compressed air for the blast was presupposed and there was little discussion of the quantity or quality of the air delivered to the tuyeres. At one time or another various practices that now are forgotten have been tried or suggested: for instance, the use of inert gas at the end of the blow; the addition of fuel to the blast; the use of hot-blast stoves; the drying of the air to a minimum moisture in the blast. Except in the last-named method little attention was paid to the quality or quantity of the air blown. Phases Of the many Papers published On various phases of the Bessemer process, nearly '7' according to one bibliography, Over go per 'ent were concerned with the metallurgical phase and less than '0 per cent discussed various sections of the pneumatic phase. Since the two phases are coincidental, apparently nine times as much thought has been given to the result as has been given to One of the causes of the Bessemer process. IS it not possible that if more attention had been paid to the pneumatics so many papers would not have had to be written on the troubles in the metallurgical phase? A study of published papers and conversation

Jan 1, 1941

By J. S. Fulton

Those who live in steel-mill towns are so accustomed to the sight of flames spouting from the mouth of a Bessemer vessel that they seldom pause to think of the amazing process behind it. Actually cold air is being blown through a hot liquid and, instead of cooling it, raises the temperature of the liquid. When coffee is too hot to drink, we know that blowing on it will cool it, so it was no wonder that when Henry Bessemer (or William Kelly, as your patriotism chooses) first proposed this cycle of steel production, he was considered mad. When Bessemer and Kelly started their investigations around 1852, there was not much practical knowledge of metallurgy and, in consequence, there was wide variation in the product made by their process. It was appreciated that the silicon, carbon and iron were all potential fuels, but not until Mushet discovered the beneficial effects of having manganese in the pig iron did the process really become commercial. Bessemer's patent of 1855 covered a crucibleful of liquid iron into which a refractory tuyere was lowered and the blow started. Since that time virtually every conceivable form of vessel, bottom arrangemerit, tuyere size and location have been suggested or tried. There have been stationary vessels with fixed bottoms, that were side, top or bottom blown; tilting vessels with two sets of side tuyeres at different elevations; vessels like a three-compartmerit septic tank; vessels of a cylindrical form supported on the long axis with tuyeres along the side submerged by a partial rotation of the vessel (this type continues in copper refineries); portable vessels to make the blow in a ladle over a mold in a foundry; a combination of a cupola and converter in one shell, and various other arrangements. But in all these experiments, compressed air for the blast was presupposed and there was little discussion of the quantity or quality of the air delivered to the tuyeres. At one time or another various practices that now are forgotten have been tried or suggested: for instance, the use of inert gas at the end of the blow; the addition of fuel to the blast; the use of hot-blast stoves; the drying of the air to a minimum moisture in the blast. Except in the last-named method little attention was paid to the quality or quantity of the air blown. Phases Of the many Papers published On various phases of the Bessemer process, nearly '7' according to one bibliography, Over go per 'ent were concerned with the metallurgical phase and less than '0 per cent discussed various sections of the pneumatic phase. Since the two phases are coincidental, apparently nine times as much thought has been given to the result as has been given to One of the causes of the Bessemer process. IS it not possible that if more attention had been paid to the pneumatics so many papers would not have had to be written on the troubles in the metallurgical phase? A study of published papers and conversation

Jan 1, 1941

By H. Hubert

THE first attempts at direct utilization of blast-furnace gas in engines were made in 1895. For a considerable time the gas had been burnt in Cowper stoves for heating the blast for the furnace, and under the boilers which supplied steam to the blowing-engines, and others serving the furnaces. It was natural, therefore, that the idea of directly employing it in gas-engines should have occurred simultaneously to several engineers, notably to Lürmann and to Lencauchez, who had pointed out the blast-furnace as a powerful -gas-producer. Nevertheless, nowhere had any attempt been made to apply it to this purpose up to the end of 1894, when Thwaite proposed it to Mr. James Riley, of the Glasgow Iron & Steel Company. About the same time investigations were being made in Belgium and in Germany, independently of Thwaite's experiments, which were not generally known on the Continent. The industrial world, which up to that time had hardly favored the idea, had thus been gradually prepared to receive it. The gas-engine, long restricted to small sizes and dependent upon the use of an expensive fuel obtainable only in large centers, now began to make headway. At the Paris Exhibition of 1889 two engines of 100 h.p. were shown and excited much interest among engineers. One had four cylinders, and was made at the celebrated works of the Deutz Company, and the other was a single-cylinder engine, exhibited by two French designers, Messrs. Delamare-Deboutteville and Malandin. In the meanwhile the design of gas-producers had made important progress, completely freeing the new engine from its

Nov 1, 1906

By AIME AIME

AMONG the European nations Germany is the center of interest economically as well as politically, and of prime importance for Europe as a whole is Germany's capacity to produce mineral products for armament and for export in exchange for the import of the essential supplies to maintain its industries. So far as minerals are concerned, Germany is worse off than any other great power except Italy, and deficiencies are being met by attempts to increase output from local deposits and by greater use of substitutes derived from domestic raw materials to replace imported metals, petroleum products, and other minerals.

Jan 1, 1939

By L. G. Jones

An approximate method of calculation is developed in this paper which allows duplication of radial unsteady-state gas flow computer results where Darcy's law applies, such as those reported by Aronofsky and Jenkins and Bruce, Peaceman, Rachford, and Rice. Moreover, the new calculation method can be used to obtain results for radial unsteady-state gas flow obeying the quadratic flow law proposed by Duwez and Green. Means are discussed for predicting well behavior at single or superimposed flow rates in finite or infinite reservoirs, determining reservoir rock properties from well-test data, reproducing and interpreting back-pressure test data, and determining the radial extent and reserves of gas reservoirs from well-test data. Example calculations are presented for gas flow following both Darcy's law and the quadratic flow law. INTRODUCTION Since the publishing of U. S. Bureau of Mines Monograph 7,1 most gas-well testing methods have been based on the equation q = y (pl2 - pw2)a, where q = production rate, pl and pw, are formation pressure and sandface pressure, respectively, and y and a are constants to be obtained from test data. These methods, used for predicting both deliverability and "open-flow" capacity of gas wells, have been useful and accurate in many cases but unsatisfactory in others. Even at best, however, they do not supply information about the formation or lead to an understanding of nonsteady-state gas flow in porous media. Many theoretically based studies2-4 of gas flow obeying Darcy's law have been made.' Since the partial differential equations which result from combining Darcy's flow law with the continuity equation are nonlinear, most of the published research consists of either numerical solutions or analytical solutions for linear approximating equations. Such solutions have been of limited value in field work due to their unhandy form and their failure to correlate most field data. There is evidence5,6 which indicates that Darcy's law is inadequate to describe gas flow at some flow rates of practical interest. A quadratic flow law: which reduces to Darcy's law at low rates, is more successful in accounting for experimentally observed behavior. This flow law has been applied successfully to a few hypothetical reservoir cases in work which has recently been published.10 However, these numerical solutions of the equations involved have been successful only on a special analog computer. Routine applications to field cases would be awkward and have not been attempted. The present paper describes an approximate method for computing nonsteady-state gas flow solutions which has been completely successful in predicting the results for both Darcy flow and quadratic flow obtained by elaborate numerical methods. The new calculation method allows determination of the observable variables in gas-well testing at constant rates. It is similar to the scheme of using a succession of steady states suggested by Muskat7 in that it makes use of steady-state and material-balance equations. It also is similar to the work of Aronofsky and Jenkins2 in that the new method includes Aronofsky and Jenkins' stabilized flow equation as a special case. It improves upon both of these calculation schemes in that it accurately describes all portions of reservoir history and suggests means of determining reservoir rock properties from well-test data. This paper deals only with production from a reservoir, in which case the rate is defined as being negative. The reservoir studied here is a homogeneous, disk-shaped porous body of uniform thickness, with all boundaries sealed except the inner radial boundary of the well.

NEW MEMBERS. The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the month of June, 1913: Members. ANGERER, VICTOR, Vice-Prest. and Genl. Mgr., Wm. Wharton, Jr. &, Co., Inc., 25th St. and Washington Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. BULLOCK, ALLYN, Min. Engr., Hazleton, Pa. CUNNINGHAM, NOEL Met. Engr. Hollinger Gold Mines Ltd., Timmins, Ont Canada ESTABROOK, EDWARD L., Supt. of Colliery 426 Center St., Ashland, PA. GATES A. O. Instructor Purdue Univ. La Fayette Ind. 1 LUDLUM, ALBERT C., Prest., New York Engrg. Co., ,2 Rector St., New York, N. Y. MILLER, HERBERT F., Met. Engr P. O. Box 142, Verona, Pa. MORTON, ELMER T., Min. Engr Clifton, Ariz. MURFIT, RICHARD H.. Fdv. Asst Hess Steel Castings Co., Bridgeton, N.J. QUAYLE, THEODORE W., Chief Sampler, Metcalf Mines, Arizona Copper Co., Metcalf, Ariz.

Jan 7, 1913

By George Newton

When Mr. Bailey asked us to present a paper describing our new BOF shop, he requested that we avoid a presentation heavily laden with detail and statistics. Not only have we attempted to do this, but also we have prepared a number of colour slides which, hopefully, will provide you with a graphic conception of the facility. The installation of the BOF facility at the Steel Co. of Canada's Hilton Works was delayed many years because of the remarkable production growth of the oxygen open hearth furnaces in No. 3 shop. However, in mid-1960 it became strongly evident that not only would increased ingot capacity be required, but also that N0.2 shop - with vintage non-oxygen open hearth furnaces - would have to clean its stacks in the near future, or be closed down. A decision to embark on the BOF facility was made in 1967 after an extended period of in-depth planning and assessment of industry trends.

Jan 1, 1972

By Edward Steidle

NOTHING stands still. We go forward or backward. As a distinct group of educators, our immediate concern is with the preparation of young men and women for participation in the mineral industries on a professional basis. I am going to have the temerity to state emphatically that for a long time as a whole we have remained in a static position. We are now confronted with the choice of advancement or retrogression. We are still in a position to make a choice and our ultimate fate will depend upon the course of action we elect to follow. Wars always have been great catalysts and social and scientific advancements mature under military stimulus in a fraction of the time normally consumed. We are now in the midst of a conflict whose duration or final effects cannot be estimated. However, the record already demonstrates that this war as never before is a mineral war in which incentive, strategy, and outcome are directly related to the distribution and utilization of minerals. The inevitable result is a drain upon our resources now reflected in our record production and a growing public consciousness of the importance of minerals in the role of human affairs. It is evident that we must seek new mineral frontiers beyond the borders of the United States and take every other precaution to forestall a "have-not" position in the world.

Jan 1, 1943

By Richard L. Seal, Allan L. Turner

INTRODUCTION The chapter discusses the procedures and operations starting with the actual training of operations personnel with respect to a grinding mill circuit and a typical check-out and start-up of a grinding circuit before turning over the operating circuit to production personnel. For the purposes of this paper, it will be assumed that the mill circuit installation is at a new location or a new operation at an existing operation. Expansion of an existing grinding facility would probably require less time-consuming and less costly procedures than those that will be outlined here. There are numerous arrangements and types of equipment that can be used for grinding circuits. For example, the grinding could be wet or dry. The grinding mill could be a rod or ball mill or some combination. The circuit could be open or closed. The closed circuit classification could be accomplished with rake classifiers, spiral classifiers, cyclones, stationary screens, or vibrating screens. To limit the discussion, the grinding circuit shown on Figure I will be discussed. The circuit includes a dry ore feed by a belt conveyor (feeder) to a wet ball mill. The ball mill discharges to a cyclone feed pump box and pump. The pump feeds a cyclone type classifier with the cyclone underflow returning to the ball mill feed and cyclone overflow being the required grinding circuit product. For the purposes of this paper, it will also be assumed that the extensive overall preparation necessary for every start-up has been accomplished. These preparations are only outlined here as they have been adequately dealt with in recent papers. (1), (2), (3) The items in these preparations would include. 1. Appointment and indoctrination of the start-up organization. 2. Integration of the start-up into the overall project schedule. 3. Development of the specific start-up schedule. 4. Budget determination and monies appropriation.

Jan 1, 1982

By Robert F. Mehl

PROGRESS in the general field of nonferrous physical metallurgy during the past .year has been uneventful but healthy. A continued increase is apparent in the number of useful alloys and in the mechanical treatment and heat- treatment of finished metals and alloys nothing can hinder the multiplication of alloys or the diversification of their treatment as knowledge of the behavior of .alloys increases; as ternary and quaternary alloys are better understood, hundreds of new metal combinations with unusual properties may well be expected. Evidence of rapid progress is already at hand.

Jan 1, 1936

By H. L. Teicliman, E. M. Sipprelle

ENACTMENT of Public Law 290 by the 78th Congress authorized the U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, to conduct an experimental program to develop the technology for obtaining oil from oil shale. In adopting and later extending this legislation, the Congress recognized the impending necessity of supplementing ground petroleum reserves with synthetic fuels. Under the provisions of this legislation, the Bureau of Mines, among other things, was charged with the responsibility of developing mining techniques, methods, and equipment for mining the oil shales of the Green River formation of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming.

Jan 1, 1950

By George C. Stone

AS most of you probably know, Australia has had many strikes. The two places that had the worst reputation were the Broken Hill mines and Port Pirie, where the smelter was located. About four or five years ago, the smelter changed hands. The new proprietors - immediately endeavored to get on better terms with the men and made such progress in that respect that, the men came to them and said, "There is no use giving us any more money. You have just raised our pay one- bob a day, but the store-keeper and the boarding-house keeper have raised their prices. The boarding housekeeper raised our board three bob a week and the storekeeper took the rest of it and we are no better off." Learning that what the men needed most was firewood wood the company bought the wood on a tract of ground across Spencer's Gulf and- sent men over to cut it. The wood was brought to the works and given to a man to cut up. He thought he had an easy job and loafed, but when the committee representing the men discovered that his loafing added to the cost of 'the wood, it promptly disciplined him and made -him work as he had never worked before. The next question that arose was the distribution of the wood. The committee got bids from several cartmen whose prices varied from about two to five shillings. It gave the work to the next to the lowest bidder. The fact that if delivering the wood cost more, the user would have to pay for it, was an entirely new idea to the men.

Jan 1, 1920

By B. M. Larsen, K. Heindlhofer

Jan 1, 1945

By E. W. Enqelmann

INCREASED metal consumption throughout the world in the past three years has brought greater activity in the concentrators and mills that treat the ores.' Comparatively low prices have made greater economies necessary, with a continuing search for more efficient flow sheets, equipment, processes, and reagents. Comminution GRINDING has long been too ex- pensive and even any small increment of saving has been eagerly sought. Although not recently new the use of rod mills to cover the gap between intermediate crushing and coarse grinding has made further headway. They eliminate dusting and the closed- circuit operation of fine crushers, either roll or Symons cone, and the rod-mill product is suitable for secondary mills which can be operated with smaller balls and iron liners instead of coarse balls and steel liners. The newer practice is radically different from the older application of rod mills where they at- tempted to use them instead of ball mills for fine grinders. For that purpose they were not well adapted, as they do not have sufficient grinding surface available per cubic foot of mill volume.

Jan 1, 1940

By F. F. ESPIE

Giving the keynote address in the final session of a conference dealing with closely related topics has a disadvantage in that much of what can be said has been said. It also has an advantage, however, because it presents the speaker with the opportunity to integrate and analyse the material presented by the various speakers. I would like to look to the near future in Australia and the United States of America, to the risks, problem areas, and changes of a rapidly evolving post-industrial era-an era we are beginning to experience where industry no longer 'calls the tune'. We miners have been quick to point out and emphasize, that ours is a 'high-risk' industry in the world of business and commerce. Yet, clearly those who have survived, and been successful, have learned to anticipate and cope with risk and change. This ability has been a 'distinguishing feature of the industry's leaders who, in market studies and commodity selection, exploration and development, mine planning, metallurgical pro- cessing, and general administration and operation 1. identify areas-of risk or inevitable change, 2. analyse, test and quantify those factors of risk or change, and 3. design methods, systems, equipment to eliminate, moderate, or control or economically compensate for predicted risks or changes.

Jan 1, 1978

By Howard S. Bryant

FROM the viewpoint of the oil producer, the oil refiner, the oil marketer, and the investor, in oil securities, a brief picture of the crude oil supply and demand in the present critical season of the year will be timely and interesting. Although crude oil production has been in a comparatively poor statistical position this year, increased sales and sustained refinery and crude oil prices have allowed increased profits for many oil companies. The large amount of crude oil going into storage during the present period of peak consumption, just previous to the major yearly fall decline in consumption, has caused oil producers to make plans to leave the oil in the ground for the present in several of the areas of large flush production. The present moment is looked on as the turning point in the current year.

Jan 1, 1929

By Steven T. Mitchell

The introduction of Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) Stoping at the Homestake Mine in Lead, SD, constitutes a major advance in Homestake Mining Company's efforts to improve productivity and reduce costs through under- ground mine mechanization. The work to date indicates that Vertical Crater Retreat Stoping is one of the safest methods of underground hardrock mining today, and is competitive with all other forms of stoping in terms of cost and productivity. Homestake anticipates that VCR stoping will account for approximately 35% of the total mine production in 1981.

Jan 1, 1981

By AIME AIME

THE first meeting" of the Iron and Steel Division was held Tuesday afternoon, Feb. 17, with nearly 100 men present and C. B. Murray as chairman. This was a round table discussion of iron ore beneficiation and of its relation to blast-furnace operations, and only one paper was presented, by Clyde E. Williams. Mr. Williams discussed the future of the Lake Superior district in its relation to the iron and steel industry. He stated that although estimates had shown that the total life of the present known iron ore reserves of the Lake Superior district was 20 to 30 years and that many believed that as a result of this depletion foreign ores would be brought to the Atlantic Seaboard, thus causing a displacement of the steel industry to the East, he believed that the Lake Superior district would continue to be the important producer of iron ore used in this country for decades beyond the predicted time before the exhaustion of the present known reserves. He described the three general types of ores that required concentration and pointed out the needs for research and the proper methods to be used in processes for the beneficiation of these low-grade materials. He discussed the effects of fine concentrates and the use of agglomerated ores in the blast furnace. This general summary led to interesting and valuable discussion on the various economic, ore-dressing, and blast-furnace problems in large-scale development of beneficiation. Perry Harrison described recent developments in sintering and the properties of iron ore sinter. T. B. Counselman and W. H. Coghill discussed the merits of classification of iron ore previous to tabling. Robert Faulkner and J. E. Little described the beneficiation plant of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation.

Jan 1, 1931

By Gilbert P. Moore

Petroleum operations in Bolivia are still limited to those of the subsidiaries of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey. Development work is being carried on at Sanandita and at Bermejo and testing operations in the north. Five wells have been completed at Sanandita. Wells 1 and 2 are producers, 3 and 5, which are north of 1 and 2, are poor wells, and well 4, to the south, was dry. In the Bermejo field, well 5 has just been completed. No information as to the production is obtainable. In the north one string was operated at each of the following locations: Machareti, Camatindi and Camiri. The well completed at Machareti during the year was a failure. The result of the others is not known. It is reported on good authority that a pipe line will be completed in 1931 to connect the Sanandita field with the Lomitas field in the Argentine. This will place Bolivia among the ranks of the producing countries of South America for the first time. This development indicates that some arrangement has been arrived at with the Argentine Government for the importation of Bolivian oil. During 1930 the Bolivian Government declared in effect the new Petroleum Law which had been expected for such a long time. One of the first acts of the military junta, which rose to power through a coup d'état, was to cancel this law, so that Bolivian oil operations are still under the old law of 1921. One new local company was formed to exploit 1,500,000 hectares near the town of Cochabamba. The Bolivia Concessions, Ltd., which had a concession permitting the selection of 17,000,000 acres in eastern Bolivia, is reported to have failed in 1930 and is now being liquidated. Chile During 1930 the Chilean Government entered into a contract with an individual to explore in five distinct zones of the Republic. According to the contract, geologists must be at work there by May 1 of this year and a well must be started by the end of 1931. If the operations are

Jan 1, 1931