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By J. D. Rice, P. L. Wearden, W. L. Hensou

Solutions to the unsteady-state partial water-drive reservoir performance problem can be obtained through the use of analogue computers or high-speed electronic digital computers. The solutions that have previously been resolved for use on digital computers, however, demand a knowledge of the aquifer parameters. Generally, the analogue computers now in use do not require this knowledge. A solution is presented herein where the aquifer performance, expressed in terms of difference equations, is related to the reservoir performance as expressed by the modified Scbiltbuis material-balance equation. A numerical procedure for a medium-sized digital computer also is presented in which a solution to the set of equations defining the aquifer and reservoir performance is obtained and the aquifer parameters (permeability and sand thickness) are automatically optimized while simultaneously matching the known pressure behavior. Predicted pressure behavior can be calculated using rates from any assumed future production practice. The procedure provides an output format which presents the cumulative, incremental and average rate of natural water influx, the per cent gas-cap expansion, the calculated reservoir pressure, the measured reservoir pressure, and the difference between the measured and calculated pressures. Results of a test problem are presented in comparison with results obtained by the Bruce Analyzer, Ohio Oil Co. 's Pace General Purpose Analogue Computer, and Sun Oil Co.'s Single-Pool Electronic Reservoir Analyzer. These results indicate that unsteady-state reservoir perlormance for a single-pool system can be adequately simulated by a numerical method employing a digital computer and that the special-purpose analogue computer can be supplanted by this method. INTRODUCTION The numerical approach to the unsteady-state partial water-drive reservoir performance problem heretofore has been limited in that solutions have been resolved only for certain fixed parameters. Also, prior to the advent of high-speed electronic digital computers in the last few years, calculations were so tedious and time-consuming that they ordinarily were neglected, or some other means of obtaining the solutions were used. The analogue approach had been used for obtaining solutions to the transmission-of-heat problem and, consequently, means were developed for applying the electrical analogue to the unsteady-state reservoir performance problem. Bruce submitted a paper for AIME publication in Sept. 1942, in which he described an electronic device (now called the Bruce Analyzer) for analyzing the water-drive performance of any reservoir, based on either steady or unsteady-state flow characteristics. 1 Sun Oil Co. adopted the analogue approach in 1949 and now has two special-purpose high-speed electronic reservoir analyzers in use.2,3 Two main features of Sun's analyzers are (1) the high repetitive rate of reproducing the entire history of reservoir performance cyclically a number of times per second, and (2) the elimination of the necessity of knowing the properties of the associated aquifer. Since the advent of larger and faster digital computers, the possibility of incorporating this second feature into a numerical approach appeared feasible. Previous work has been done and material published covering the application of numerical methods to the behavior of the pressure with respect to time at any point in an associated aquifer? However, the aquifer parameters must be known from some source. The material presented in Ref. 4 has been used to a great degree in developing the numerical method described herein. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS The problem of simulating the performance of a reservoir and the associated aquifer is to determine the characteristics of the aquifer such that the

Jan 1, 1970

By James M. Stapleton

It has long been recognized by blastfurnace men that correct top distribution of materials is very important in efficient and economical furnace operation. Thousands of experiments on top design, filling, sizing, and other operations have been carried out to improving furnace performance by securing uniform distribution. Many of these experiments have worked out satisfactorily and have been passed along to the industry. Many of them have been discarded and forgotten. It has been the custom to judge the results of such experimentation by the results shown in improved or lowered furnace efficiency. While the effect on furnace practice will have to continue to be the final criterion of experimental changes, it has always been a desire of blast-furnace men to ascertain the reason for failure or success. Efficiency in the blast furnace approaching the maximum can be measured in several ways: (1) by actual operating results as revealed in the coke rate and tonnage figures, and (2), in the degree to which the top gas approaches the limiting ratio of CO/CO2 for the reduction of iron oxide by CO gas. This ratio is shown in the equilibrium curve in Fig. I for the system Fe-O-C and CO2-CO-C. The closer the top gases approach this limiting ratio (set at 1.08 by Martin1 because of the effect of limestone calcination) the more efficiently we may expect a furnace to operate. The fact that low CO/CO2 ratios parallel eficient operating performance caused us to investigate the cause of good or poor distribution and the effect of filling and other changes on furnace operation. Heretofore it has been possible to take a sample of furnace gas (usually from the dust catcher) and from it determine how closely the reducing gases were to the ideal or limiting value as set by the equilibrium diagram. However, to find just where in the top area the distribution was distorted and the top-gas CO/CO2 ratios were distant from equilibrium values has been a difficult and expensive investigational procedure. In an effort to overcome this difficulty, apparatus was designed to take gas samples and temperatures across the top radius of the furnace. It was hoped that with the aid of this apparatus traverse sampling of the ascending gases could be simplified, and the cost of sampling substantially lowered. Routine experimenting could then be maintained and results checked with furnace operation. It must be emphasized that a traverse sampling is necessary for a true picture, as single samples at any one point are unreliable. This statement can be verified by an examination of Tables 3 to 6, showing results obtained at our furnaces in a large number of tests. Apparatus The design of the equipment for taking the samples was governed by the need for providing a simple, routine test that could be performed fairly quickly without adversely affecting normal furnace operation.

Jan 1, 1943

By James M. Stapleton

It has long been recognized by blastfurnace men that correct top distribution of materials is very important in efficient and economical furnace operation. Thousands of experiments on top design, filling, sizing, and other operations have been carried out to improving furnace performance by securing uniform distribution. Many of these experiments have worked out satisfactorily and have been passed along to the industry. Many of them have been discarded and forgotten. It has been the custom to judge the results of such experimentation by the results shown in improved or lowered furnace efficiency. While the effect on furnace practice will have to continue to be the final criterion of experimental changes, it has always been a desire of blast-furnace men to ascertain the reason for failure or success. Efficiency in the blast furnace approaching the maximum can be measured in several ways: (1) by actual operating results as revealed in the coke rate and tonnage figures, and (2), in the degree to which the top gas approaches the limiting ratio of CO/CO2 for the reduction of iron oxide by CO gas. This ratio is shown in the equilibrium curve in Fig. I for the system Fe-O-C and CO2-CO-C. The closer the top gases approach this limiting ratio (set at 1.08 by Martin1 because of the effect of limestone calcination) the more efficiently we may expect a furnace to operate. The fact that low CO/CO2 ratios parallel eficient operating performance caused us to investigate the cause of good or poor distribution and the effect of filling and other changes on furnace operation. Heretofore it has been possible to take a sample of furnace gas (usually from the dust catcher) and from it determine how closely the reducing gases were to the ideal or limiting value as set by the equilibrium diagram. However, to find just where in the top area the distribution was distorted and the top-gas CO/CO2 ratios were distant from equilibrium values has been a difficult and expensive investigational procedure. In an effort to overcome this difficulty, apparatus was designed to take gas samples and temperatures across the top radius of the furnace. It was hoped that with the aid of this apparatus traverse sampling of the ascending gases could be simplified, and the cost of sampling substantially lowered. Routine experimenting could then be maintained and results checked with furnace operation. It must be emphasized that a traverse sampling is necessary for a true picture, as single samples at any one point are unreliable. This statement can be verified by an examination of Tables 3 to 6, showing results obtained at our furnaces in a large number of tests. Apparatus The design of the equipment for taking the samples was governed by the need for providing a simple, routine test that could be performed fairly quickly without adversely affecting normal furnace operation.

Jan 1, 1943

United Engineering Trustees, Inc. W. D. B. MOTTER, JR., '40 A. L. QUENEAU, '41 ALBERT ROBERTS, '39 The Engineering Foundation GEORGE D. BARRON, '40 F. F. COLCORD. '42 A. L. QUENEAU, '41

Jan 1, 1939

Jan 1, 1902

United Engineering Trustees, Inc. ARTHUR S. DWIGHT GEORGE D BARRON J V. N DORR Engineering Societies Library Board ROBERT PEELE PHILIP W. HENRY GEORGE C STONE JOSEPH E. POGUE The Engineering Foundation H C BELLINGER GALEN H CLEVENGER J V N DORR

Jan 1, 1923

To THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AND MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS. GENTLEMEN Like every other significant activity in the United States today, the work of the Institute has been affected by and adjusted to the prosecution of war against Germany, .Japan and their satellites. As the elaborate engines and materiel of modern mobile warfare are made, for the most part, of metals and other minerals; and are powered by mineral fuels, the industries -represented by the A.I.M.E. are of primary and vital importance. Of some 29 critical materials officially listed by the War Production Board, 24 are minerals. An alternate for one of the others, rated as a nonmineral, is to be made principally from petroleum. This alludes, of course, to rubber. The procurement of tremendous quantities of such raw materials and the effective processing, fabrication, and utilization of them depend on members of those branches of the engineering profession represented by the A.I.M.E.

Jan 1, 1943

Jan 1, 1969

By W. A. Foster

NINETY years after the Riddle nickel deposit N was discovered in Oregon in 1864, Hanna Coal & Ore Corp. began mining operations. Until 1954 much prospecting and preliminary development work had been done on the property, but no ore had been shipped other than for metallurgical testing. The deposit is being explored by churn drilling and trenching, and a few test shafts have been put down for the purpose of studying the ore in place, determining volume and moisture factors, and gathering bulk samples for pilot plant and smelter tests. In churn drilling, 6-in. casing is driven down 2 or 3 ft behind the drill bit and bottomed at each 5-ft interval. All the sludge for each cased 5-ft interval is dumped through a splitter and one eighth is saved and analyzed. Drillholes are stopped after going through the ore zone and penetrating fresh peridotite in which the nickel content is less than 0.5 pct.

Jan 8, 1957

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Jan 1, 1938

By Irving B. Cadoff, Stojan M. Zalar

AgInTe2, CuInTe2, and all Proportions of CuxAg1-xInTe, forMed homogeneous single phase alloys after direct solidification from the nielt. X-ray analysis indicated a zinc-blel~de strzccture typical of the chalcopyrite compounds, and the electrical resistivity and Sccbeck coefficient values were in the semiconducting range. AuInTe, and AuxA4g,-, InTe, formed by what appeared to be a peritectic reaction (the thermal analysis curves showing more than one arrest) and were conseyue~ztly polyphase. Substitution of copper into AgIrzTe, resulted in a continuous transition in the room tenzperature Seebeck coefficient from the negative AgIzTe, to the positive CuInTe,. A zero coefficient was obtained at about Cuo.55 Ago.45 InTe, . The temperatzire variation was similar to that observed for the stoichiometric compounds, that zs, tendency towards "p" concEuction at elevated temperatures. The thernzoelectric figure of merit for the compo~uzds, as determined by the Putley -Harmnn method were in the range 10- to 10-7 "K-l; the thermal conductivities in the order of 0.15 cal per sec-cm-oK. INCREASED interest in semiconducting intermetallic substances is expanding much of recent research from simple binary compounds into polyatomic systems and solid solutions. Ternary compounds A' represent a covalent extension of the binary semiconductors Within the a tin isoelec-tronic series, Ag-Cd-In-Sn-Sb-Te-I, divalent cadmium atoms in CdTe are being substituted for by monovalent silver and trivalent indium atoms to form the compound AgInTe, . By cross-substitution with elements of other isoelectronic series, a great number of ternary compounds A 'B"'c? is possible. In all of them, however, a necessary though not sufficient condition for the covalent, semiconducting bond—that there be four sharing orbital electrons per atom—must be fulfilled. In AgInTe,, each silver or indium atom is tetrahedrally surrounded by four tellurium atoms, while each tellurium atom is co-valently bound to two silver and two indium atoms. Synthetic chalcopyrites A'B"'c~ were first recognized as potential semiconduct&rs by Goodman and Douglas.' Austin, Goodman, and Pengelly discuss preparation difficulties and some electronic measurements on AgInS, , AgInSe, CuInSe, , AgInTe, , and CuInTe,. Chalcopyrites A B c2v are mentioned in papers attempting to classify and predict semiconducting behavior of intermetallic compounds; on the basis of saturated tetrahedral sp3 bonds,3 by specific selection criteria,' and by crystallographic considerations."

Jan 1, 1962

By W. R. Hibbard, Ming-Kao Yen

Various rationalizations of preferred orientations in cold worked polycrystalline metals have been based on the operation of at least two three2 five, an indefinite number, and all,6 slip systems of the type occurring in single crystals. Pickus and Mathewson3 suggested that the cold rolling texture in face-centered cubic metals could be rationalized on the basis of two or more operating slip directions symmetrically disposed about the direction of flow in such a manner that the resolved shear stress factor is equal for all operating slip systems and lattice rotations cancel each other. The importance of the direction of flow, the necessity for the operation of slip systems capable of producing the required changes in external dimensions, the maintenance of a common surface between adjacent grains and a symmetrical arrangement of the operating slip systems in order to produce an end orientation which is stable under additional deformation lead to the following rationalization of textures based on the type of slip systems operative in single crystals. The rationalization is intended to explain why certain orientations are suitable for deformational flow without a change in orientation and thus are stable end orientations or ideal texture orientations. It does not attempt to explain how the grains of a randomly oriented polycrystalline aggregate will reach this orientation. The rationalization is based on the following four postulates: 1. The ideal textures for polycrystalline aggregates are the result of reorientations of individual crystals toward the same stable end orientation at which no further reorientation will occur even during additional deformation. Since, in simple slip, the relative orientations of the stress axis and the active slip system determine the change in orientation during slip, it is considered that the orientation of the stress axis with respect to the ideal texture determines what slip systems must be active to retain the stable end orientation. Therefore the stable end orientation should be a symmetrical one around the stress axis with respect to the active slip systems such that lattice rotations resulting from slip will cancel each other and prevent a resultant change in orientation. (Rotational symmetry only—not translation, inversion, nor others—is considered here.) Thus a metal under a pure stress should develop a texture consisting of one or more of the crystallographically symmetrical directions, <100>, <110> or <111> for cubic metals or <0001>, <1010> or <1120> for hexagonal close-packed metals, parallel to the stress axis. 2. Since the active slip direction is the direction of glide during simple slip and thus the direction of maximum shear movement, in the ideal texture the active slip

Jan 1, 1949

By Ming-Kao Yen, W. R. Hibbard

Various rationalizations of preferred orientations in cold worked polycrystalline metals have been based on the operation of at least two three2 five, an indefinite number, and all,6 slip systems of the type occurring in single crystals. Pickus and Mathewson3 suggested that the cold rolling texture in face-centered cubic metals could be rationalized on the basis of two or more operating slip directions symmetrically disposed about the direction of flow in such a manner that the resolved shear stress factor is equal for all operating slip systems and lattice rotations cancel each other. The importance of the direction of flow, the necessity for the operation of slip systems capable of producing the required changes in external dimensions, the maintenance of a common surface between adjacent grains and a symmetrical arrangement of the operating slip systems in order to produce an end orientation which is stable under additional deformation lead to the following rationalization of textures based on the type of slip systems operative in single crystals. The rationalization is intended to explain why certain orientations are suitable for deformational flow without a change in orientation and thus are stable end orientations or ideal texture orientations. It does not attempt to explain how the grains of a randomly oriented polycrystalline aggregate will reach this orientation. The rationalization is based on the following four postulates: 1. The ideal textures for polycrystalline aggregates are the result of reorientations of individual crystals toward the same stable end orientation at which no further reorientation will occur even during additional deformation. Since, in simple slip, the relative orientations of the stress axis and the active slip system determine the change in orientation during slip, it is considered that the orientation of the stress axis with respect to the ideal texture determines what slip systems must be active to retain the stable end orientation. Therefore the stable end orientation should be a symmetrical one around the stress axis with respect to the active slip systems such that lattice rotations resulting from slip will cancel each other and prevent a resultant change in orientation. (Rotational symmetry only—not translation, inversion, nor others—is considered here.) Thus a metal under a pure stress should develop a texture consisting of one or more of the crystallographically symmetrical directions, <100>, <110> or <111> for cubic metals or <0001>, <1010> or <1120> for hexagonal close-packed metals, parallel to the stress axis. 2. Since the active slip direction is the direction of glide during simple slip and thus the direction of maximum shear movement, in the ideal texture the active slip

Jan 1, 1949

By P. Chiotti, R. J. Hecht

Vapov pressure data of solid and liquid alloys along with phase diagram data WERE employed in calculating the thermodynamic properties for the Ca-Zn system. The relative excess partial molal free energy for zinc in the liquid alloys was fitted to the relation wnvre i is we tvmpvrutiirc in ucgrees neivtu ana in is the tr~ole fvaction. Relations for the standard free energy of fortnation for the eight cornpounds were developed. ThE phase diagram for the Ca-Zn system as determined by Messing et a1.&apos; is reproduced in Fig. 1. Earlier work on the phase diagram has been summarized by Hansen and Anderko2 and the very limited thermodynamic information for this system has been reviewed by Hultgren et a1.3 The heat of fusion for the compound CaZn2 has recently been determined to be 9260 cal per mole.4 Solubility data for calcium in zinc for the temperature range of 650" to 725°C were fitted by the relation and reported by Johnson and Dilloon5 In the present investigation zinc vapor pressure data were obtained by both the dewpoint and Knudsen methods in order to calculate the thermodynamic properties for liquid and solid alloys. The dewpoint method as employed in this work requires that only one of the components be significantly volatile, in this case zinc, and that the vapor pressure of pure zinc be known. For calculation purposes the vapor pressure data for pure zinc3 were fitted to the relations; for temperatures below 692.7K, the melting point of zinc. The corresponding free-energy relations for vaporization and sublimation of pure zinc are respectively. Some of the calculations also required knowledge of the free energy of fusion of zinc and calcium and the free energy for the 721°K allotropic transformation of calcium. The free energy of fusion of zinc was taken to be the difference between Eqs. [4] and [5], or The free energy of fusion and transition for calcium were based on the enthalpy values of 2040 and 222 cal per g-atom, respectively, as reported by Chiotti et al. 4 and the heat capacity data given by Hultgren et a1.3 and are represented by the relations, In the latter expression the difference in heat capacity between the a and 0 forms of calcium was neglected. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The metals used in preparing the alloys were Bunker Hill slab zinc, 99.99 pct pure, and Ames Laboratory calcium. The average impurities in the calcium in parts per million by weight, ppm, were N-17, H—77, Ba—216, Mg-15, Si—7, C—157, and Fe—9. The zinc was cleaned in dilute nitric acid and the calcium was used as received. The calcium was stored and handled in an argon-filled glove box and when removed from the dry box it was kept in an argon-filled desiccator. Tantalum was found to be a suitable alloy container. The alloy components were contained in a 1-in.-diam cylindri-

Jan 1, 1968

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Jan 1, 1938

Executive-A. R. LEDOUX, chairman. Membership-J. V. W. REYNDERS, chairman. Finance-J. V. N. Dorr, chairman. Library-E. GYBBON SPILSBURY, chairman. Papers and Publications-BRADLEY STOUGHTON, chairman. Nominations-POPE YEATMAN, chairman.

Jan 12, 1919

By S. N. Kesten, Richard Murphy, A. H. Land, W. F. James

Introduction—by W. F. James and A. H. Lang This paper describes the geology and present state of development of uranium and thorium deposits in Canada. It is expected that this information will be added to that now being assembled from available American and British data to provide a background for engineers and others who may be called upon in the future to examine or search for radioactive deposits. Some generaliza- tions regarding the Canadian deposits are included, but many of these are necessarily tentative. The information contained in the paper is up to date for the end of 1948. The information contained in this paper has been derived from many sources. Much of it is from the records of the Canadian government-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and from examinations of government and private properties made by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Some information on privately-owned properties has been quoted from other sources mentioned in the text. The information has been assembled by W. F. James of Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and A. H. Lang of the Geological Survey of Canada, who have written the sections for which they are credited. The description of the Eldorado mine is based on reports by Richard Murphy, formerly chief geologist for Eldorado; the report by Mr. Murphy was published previously by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,&apos; to whom the writers are indebted for permission to repub-lish. The section dealing with the geology of and development work in the Goldfields area, where Eldorado has important holdings, is by S. N. Kesten, field geologist for Eldorado. The geological diagram of the Goldfields area (fig. 2) was kindly supplied by A. M. Christie of the Geological Survey of Can-

Jan 1, 1951

By W. F. James, Richard Murphy, S. N. Kesten, A. H. Land

Introduction—by W. F. James and A. H. Lang This paper describes the geology and present state of development of uranium and thorium deposits in Canada. It is expected that this information will be added to that now being assembled from available American and British data to provide a background for engineers and others who may be called upon in the future to examine or search for radioactive deposits. Some generaliza- tions regarding the Canadian deposits are included, but many of these are necessarily tentative. The information contained in the paper is up to date for the end of 1948. The information contained in this paper has been derived from many sources. Much of it is from the records of the Canadian government-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and from examinations of government and private properties made by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Some information on privately-owned properties has been quoted from other sources mentioned in the text. The information has been assembled by W. F. James of Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and A. H. Lang of the Geological Survey of Canada, who have written the sections for which they are credited. The description of the Eldorado mine is based on reports by Richard Murphy, formerly chief geologist for Eldorado; the report by Mr. Murphy was published previously by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,&apos; to whom the writers are indebted for permission to repub-lish. The section dealing with the geology of and development work in the Goldfields area, where Eldorado has important holdings, is by S. N. Kesten, field geologist for Eldorado. The geological diagram of the Goldfields area (fig. 2) was kindly supplied by A. M. Christie of the Geological Survey of Can-

Jan 1, 1951

By W. Rostoker, D. W. Levinson, A. Yamamoto

The influence of carbon on tensile strength, tensile ductility, transformation kinetics, and grain growth characteristics of selected Ti-Mo base alloys was studied. No systematic influence of carbon in tensile strength or significant deleterious effect on tensile ductility was observed. There was a marked increase in transformation rate due to carbon. Dispersed carbides exert a marked inhibiting effect on grain boundary migration, and thus effectively prevent grain coarsening during solution treatment in the ß phase field. AS part of a research program directed toward the illumination of factors governing modes of transformation, transformation kinetics, and mechanical properties obtainable through these transformations by heat treatment, Ti-Mo base alloys were selected for study. The binary system is a characteristic phase diagram type which has been studied in some detail&apos;, &apos; in relation to transformation kinetics and mechanical properties. Although carbon bearing alloys have acquired a bad reputation, the possibilities of melting titanium under conditions which occasion some carbon pickup are very attractive. It is therefore of considerable importance to know whether carbon, present as a dispersed carbide phase, is actually deleterious when all other detrimental factors are minimized. Basic alloy compositions containing nominally 3, 5, 7, and 11 pet Mo were prepared with systematic carbon addition up to 1 pet by weight. Various of these alloys were subjected to a series of critical and definitive experiments to delineate the effect of carbon on the transformation behavior and associated mechanical properties. Experimental Procedure Alloys were prepared from 115 Bhn magnesium-reduced sponge titanium. This sponge analyzed ap- proximately 0.05 pet C. Ti-Mo and Ti-C master alloys were made by arc-melting the sponge with high purity (99.9 + pet) molybdenum and spectro-scopic grade graphite, respectively. Alloys were then prepared from the master alloys and sponge by double are-melting. One kg ingots were prepared by melting in a nonconsumable electrode furnace. These ingots were forged at 1000°C to &apos;/z in. rods, and cleaned and processed into electrodes for the second melting operation. The final ingots were ground to remove surface defects, then forged again to 1/2 in. or 3/8 in. diam rods for processing to test samples. It is significant that all of the alloys at all carbon levels forged satisfactorily. For convenience, the alloys will be referred to throughout the text by their nominal analyses. Samples for the study of transformation rates were prepared from 1/2 in. diam round stock. They were then solution treated in a helium filled tube furnace at 1000°C for 30 min prior to the isothermal transformation treatments in lead bath furnaces. Temperature control in both cases was within ±3oC. Following the isothermal transformation treatments the samples were water quenched. These experiments were carried out before the general adoption of the resistometric procedure for kinetic studies. The data were therefore obtained entirely by metal-lographic analysis. M, temperature was also determined by the metallographic method. Shoulder-type tensile test pieces were machined from heat treated, 1/2 in. diam slugs to provide a 0.252 in. test diam and a 1 in. gage length. The isothermal-type heat treatments were chosen from previous data&apos; to provide three levels of strength and ductility.

Jan 1, 1957