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By M. O. Holowaty, C. M. Squarcy

Blast furnaces are the tools of men, and it is men who have made them great. Here is presented the story of the Ironmakers-the men who first poured hot metal into what would someday be the sinews of a nation. W HEN the Jacobean merchant adventurers bade farewell to the first ship of colonists sailing for the new land, they instructed them to direct all their skill and energy to grow silk worms in Virginia. The adventurers felt sure that they could flood the market with highly priced and much desired goods like silk, sugar, tea, and indigo. They were also convinced that they would fill the needs of the mother country for iron. Early iron production in the colonies The merchants certainly had a wonderful imagination, for silk and indigo were just as exotic in Virginia as they were in England. The settlers found it more profitable to raise tobacco on the vast stretches of the free, fertile land. Thus the plans of settlers clashed with those of The Virginia Co.; and only point of agreement was the desire to produce iron. But, even there the motives of the settlers and those of The Virginia Co. of London were worlds apart. The settlers wanted to produce the tools badly needed in the colony, while the Company desired to cash in on the rising demand for iron which the home industry could not satisfy. Both the settlers and the Company lost no time trying to find iron ore. Locations of the early mines are not known. If, however, the reports of the Irishman, Francis Maguel, can be trusted, as early as 1609 a ship sailed for England with a load of 17 tons of crude iron which the East India Co. purchased at £ 4 per ton. The iron was of excellent quality and considered the best iron made of non-English ore that was ever purchased.

Jan 1, 1961

By H. B. Pulsifer

This paper outlines a method for rapid production of flat,, granular surfaces on many of the medium hard alloys. Grinding wheels and fabrics on wheels are not used; the purpose is accomplished by rubbing on emery papers and on fine abrasives heaped on hand boards. The advantages of chromic acid in the solutions for etching nickel and copper alloys are explained. Steels may require an additional step in the mechanical smoothing owing to the lack of an ideal etchant. Chloric acid is a rapid etchant for steel. Thirty-six photomicrographs illustrate the steps in smoothing and the clearness with which structures can be rapidly exposed. New structures in low-carbon steels are announced. After a little practice, many materials can be finished within two or three minutes. CUPRONICKELS In the previous papers on the metallography of copper and magnesiurn which the author has presented to this Institute there has been an attempt to demonstrate the advantages of minimizing the mechanical work of surfacing and depending more on chemical means; the present paper continues the research into a still wider field. It is obvious that the success of a chemical method for smoothing and etching depends almost entirely on the use of a suitable reagent. The etchant must remove the surface granulations and outline the structures. A very special type of reaction between reagent and metal must be displayed. Promiscuous corrosion or the intensification of the attack about local couples formed by impurities or components must not be in evidence. There are several reagents that etch highly polished nickel and copper alloys very well. Acidified ferric chloride solutions, concentrated and dilute nitric acid solutions, and nitric and acetic acids in acetone have been used to good advantage for the purpose. However, if they are expected to etch rather deeply—that is, smooth as well as characterize— the results may be far from satisfactory. Advantages of Chromic Acid In a protracted series of experiments it has been found that the addit,ion of chromic acid may be of the most surprising benefit. The function

Jan 1, 1929

By H. B. Pulsifer

This paper outlines a method for rapid production of flat,, granular surfaces on many of the medium hard alloys. Grinding wheels and fabrics on wheels are not used; the purpose is accomplished by rubbing on emery papers and on fine abrasives heaped on hand boards. The advantages of chromic acid in the solutions for etching nickel and copper alloys are explained. Steels may require an additional step in the mechanical smoothing owing to the lack of an ideal etchant. Chloric acid is a rapid etchant for steel. Thirty-six photomicrographs illustrate the steps in smoothing and the clearness with which structures can be rapidly exposed. New structures in low-carbon steels are announced. After a little practice, many materials can be finished within two or three minutes. CUPRONICKELS In the previous papers on the metallography of copper and magnesiurn which the author has presented to this Institute there has been an attempt to demonstrate the advantages of minimizing the mechanical work of surfacing and depending more on chemical means; the present paper continues the research into a still wider field. It is obvious that the success of a chemical method for smoothing and etching depends almost entirely on the use of a suitable reagent. The etchant must remove the surface granulations and outline the structures. A very special type of reaction between reagent and metal must be displayed. Promiscuous corrosion or the intensification of the attack about local couples formed by impurities or components must not be in evidence. There are several reagents that etch highly polished nickel and copper alloys very well. Acidified ferric chloride solutions, concentrated and dilute nitric acid solutions, and nitric and acetic acids in acetone have been used to good advantage for the purpose. However, if they are expected to etch rather deeply—that is, smooth as well as characterize— the results may be far from satisfactory. Advantages of Chromic Acid In a protracted series of experiments it has been found that the addit,ion of chromic acid may be of the most surprising benefit. The function

Jan 1, 1929

THROUGH the courtesy of the Southern Appala-chian Coal Operators' Association, a joint meeting of the Southern Appalachian Efficiency Associa-tion and local members of the A. I. M. E. and A. S. M. E. was held at Knoxville, Tenn., on Nov. 12. In introduc-ing the subject and stating the object of the meeting, H. Foster Bain, speaking for the. Institute members, said "Shoveling coal is the largest job of hand labor re-maining in this country, with the exception of the mis-cellaneous work on the farms, and even there nearly all the big jobs are now performed with the help of machines. The men in the coal mines, by hand labor, dig, each year, more cubic yards than were taken out of the Panama Canal. It has been a natural ambition of engineers, operators and men alike to follow here the characteristic lead of American industry and to substi-tute as far as possible the work of machines for the work of men; to promote the latter to the position of con-trolling and directing mechanical power rather than being themselves the machines that lift the coal from the floor of the room into the mine car. "Handling materials is one of the regular jobs of mechanical engineers, and the American Society of Me-chanical Engineers maintains a Materials Handling Division for discussion of the technical problems con-cerned. Having in mind the excellent results that had flowed from application of mechanical power and de-vices to these problems in factories, port terminals, warehouses, and other above-ground plants, the Me-chanical Engineers began to consider the possibility of introducing similar methods underground. Individual-ly, many were called upon to design, erect and operate machines for such use and at once they found them-selves faced by many novel conditions and difficulties. The Division thereupon planned a general meeting in New York in March, 1926, for consideration of problems and progress in this field. The Mining Engineers. and representative coal operators were invited to attend and

Jan 12, 1927

By R. E. Zimmerman

WITH coal-preparation plants becoming more complex and containing widely diversified types of equipment and processes, it is necessary that considerable control be exercised in their operation. Rising mine costs make it imperative that close check be made of plant efficiencies to assure a minimum loss of coal to the refuse bank. Further, much of the coal sold today is sold on a competitive specification basis, and this makes it necessary to provide frequent analyses and inspections. Many ' plants are required to operate on a two or three-shift basis, and as a con- sequence an efficient organization is required to eliminate down time and provide for smooth low-cost operation. ORGANIZATION Probably the most important item for successful operation of a preparation plant is a capable, properly organized staff, with the individual workers properly informed and well trained for their particular jobs, clear-cut lines of authority among the supervisors and in general a standard operating procedure for most conceivable conditions that may occur. The idea of placing the older, partially disabled and generally incompetent coal miner in the cleaning plant, as was the practice on the earlier tipples, is entirely inadequate in a modern complex cleaning plant. The new plants require intelligent, alert, and reasonably educated men. With perhaps millions of dollars invested in an installation, it is poor business to use other than a well organized, well trained, and properly supervised force. Organizations naturally must vary with the size of the plant and local conditions; whether it is a central cleaning plant at a distance from the mine organization or one of several cleaning plants operated by the company. Smaller operations can be operated by a washery foreman, under the supervision of the mine superintendent or perhaps the "outside" superintendent. Large installations should have a plant superintendent either responsible to the mine superintendent or preferably, where possible, responsible to a preparation manager or engineer. A typical organization chart for companies operating in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania is shown in Fig. 1. Breaker (preparation plant)

Jan 1, 1950

By O. K. Miniato, L. Massé, K. Nobe, J. S. Aronofsky, W. F. 213-000-000-016 Seyer

MUCH work has been done dealing with the effect of mechanical stress on electrode potential in an electrochemical system. The contradictory nature of the experimental results indicates the complexity of the problem although thermodynamic considerations show that a simple relationshir, should exist. In those systems where a gas was the electromotive active substance satisfactory agreement between theory and practice has been found. Des Coudres' found this to be so even when the active substance of the electrode, in this case mercury, was in the liquid state. In contrast, attempts to correlate theory and experiment for the solid state have met with a very limited success. The early workers in this field, Andrews,2 Walker and Dill3 used iron, certainly one of the most reactive of metals. Others have made use of less active metals such as copper and nickel. Recently Fryxell and Nachtrieb4 investigated the electrochemical behavior of gold and silver under both tensile and compressive stresses and concluded that it was doubtful whether true stress potentials could ever be measured. Much of the lack of success to measure the thermodynamic stress potential can be ascribed to the presence or formation of a complex film on the metal surface in contact with the electrolyte. Further, the theoretical stress potential is very small and therefore difficult to measure directly. Thus the calculated emf between a 24 B & S gage cold-drawn copper wire stressed with a weight of 1 kg and an unstressed portion of the same wire is only 2.60 X 10"7 volts. This is very small compared to that which can be produced by chemical reactions at the metal electrolyte interface which in turn can be so large as to mask completely the stress potential. Hence in this type of measurement all chemical side effects must be eliminated or reduced as much as possible. It was for this reason that the system copper-sodium chloride solution was selected for study. INSTRUMENTATION In the many preliminary experiments conducted, two major difficulties were encountered. The first was to measure the small electro-potentials to be expected and the second to obtain a suitable electrode surface. The conventional potentiometric method was found to be unsatisfactory for measuring the small emf expected. However, by using an L & N No. 2290 galvanometer having a resistance of 915 ohms consistent measurements were possible. The reference electrode was always the unstressed one made from the same sample of wire. The steady current flow was approximately 10-8 amp. Lewis and Randell5 have stated that for currents of the order of 10-8, if there is no sensible polarization, the measured emf may be taken as a reversible one. To check the galvanomenter readings an alternative method was devised to measure the potential difference between the wires. This involved a Liston-Falb d-c breaker amplifier model 10, an L & N k-2 potentiometer and a moving-coil galvanometer having a sensitivity greater than 0.1 µv (microvolt) per mm. To increase further the output voltage of the amplifier a d-c amplifier, model B. L.-932 was introduced into the circuit. This amplifier was in turn connected to a Brush recorder which had been calibrated previously by the test signals from the Liston-Falb instrument. These test voltages employed took into account the impedance of the input current. Unfortunately, this method had too low a sensitivity for measurement below 10 µv. Above this value the voltage agreed reasonably well with those obtained directly by the simple galvanometer method. The main advantage of the amplifier setup was that one did not have to wait until no deflection occurred on the galvanometer in the circuit when first exposing the wires to the solu-

Jan 1, 1959

By J. F. Butler

Boron nitride, BN, has been identified in boron low-carbon steels by means of light microscopy, electron microscopy and diffraction, and chemical analysis. This boron nitride is responsible for strain aging suppression in these steels through the removal of nitrogen from solution; however, small oxidizing potentials which result in deboronization In the austenitic temperature range also result in boron nitride decomposition and the subsequent occurrence of nitrogen strain aging. THE addition of boron to low-carbon steels is an effective means of eliminating the detrimental effects of strain aging;',' however, the mechanism by which boron suppresses strain aging has not been established. In studying the effect of heat treatment on the strain aging of boron low-carbon steels, Butler3 found that no detectable nitrogen was present in the ferrite solid solution after various heat treatments even though the total nitrogen analyses of the steels were 0.003 pct N. Apparently the function of boron in suppressing strain aging is the removal of nitrogen from solution to form a relatively stable second phase. A clue to the identity of this phase was found by Speight4 who extracted from an aluminum-killed boron steel an acid insoluble residue which contained boron and nitrogen in proportions corresponding to the compound, BN. Shyne and Morgan5 found that the addition of nitrogen to a hardenable boron steel lowered its hardenability in a manner which suggest-d the presence of nucleating particles (presumably BN) even at high austenitizing temperatures. Although this indirect evidence for the presence of boron nitride in boron steels has been found, the compound was not identified metallographically as a separate phase in these steels. Because boron has an affinity for oxygen comparable to that of silicon,5 boron steels must be thoroughly killed with aluminum in order to prevent the reaction of boron with oxygen.7 The affinity of boron for oxygen also is demonstrated through the ease of deboronization of a boron steel in an oxidizing atmosphere. Digges, Irish, and Carwile8 found that a mixture of wet natural gas and air caused both deboronixation and decarburization of a boron steel at 1900°F. The boron content rose at the surface of the steel due to the formation of boron oxide. Shyne and Morgan9 encountered deboronization at much lower oxygen potentials; loss of boron occurred in steels treated at 1750o F under argon purified to 0.0014 pct 0, even though decarburization did not occur. Boron oxide, B2O3, is much more stable than the nitride, BN, as is indicated by the standard free energies of formation at 980oC: -235 kcal per mol of B2O3 (liquid) and -28 kcal per mol of BN (crystal). It is evident that the oxygen potential must be kept low in the presence of BN in order to prevent its decomposition and the subsequent formation of B2O3' The purpose of the work described in this paper was to identify the nitride phase responsible for the removal of nitrogen from solution and to study its stability under oxidizing conditions. IDENTIFICATION OF BN In order to identify the phase containing boron and nitrogen, several alloys high in boron and nitrogen were made up in a small vacuum furnace. In alloys 3 and 4, Table I, electrolytic iron was used as a charge material. Boron additions were made in the form of 18 pct B ferro-boron after the iron was molten. In the case of alloy 3, the charge was solidified at this point; for alloy 4, nitrogen at 1 atm pressure was admitted over the melt before it was

Jan 1, 1962

By A. M. Gaudin

Activation of sphalerite with silver ions results from the exchange of two Ag ions for one Zn ion in the sphalerite lattice. The exchange is proportional to the logarithm of time and proceeds until either of the reactants is consumed. Sodium cyanide prevents the activation of sphalerite by controlling the ratio [Zn++]/[Ag+]' in solution. If sphalerite has already been activated with excess silver, cyanide ions can deactivate sphalerite provided oxygen is present. SOLUBLE: silver salts are effective activators for flotation of sphalerite with potassium ethyl xan-thate as collector.* Since sphalerite takes up large quantities of silver ions rapidly,2-4 investigation of this system appeared fruitful for studying the mechanism of sphalerite activation and deactivation. Experimental data presented here comprise studies of the mechanism and rates of activation and deactivation of sphalerite with silver and cyanide ions. A 20-lb sample of sphalerite from Ottawa County, Oklahoma, was handpicked, crushed, screened, hy-drosized to produce a 65/100-mesh fraction, and purified by electrostatic separation. The sphalerite was then leached with benzene and absolute ethyl alcohol to remove possible organic contaminants and with 0.1 M NaCN to remove any copper that might have been picked up during screening. The benzene had been specially purified by grinding with fine sphalerite for 12 hr to remove trace impurities that might have had a specific affinity for sphalerite. Ii'inally, the mineral was washed, dried in flowing nitrogen, and stored in large ground-glass stoppered weighing bottles under a small nitrogen pressure. The specific surface of two samples from the 65/100-mesh sphalerite stock, measured by krypton gas adsorption," was 420 cm2 per g. Compared with spheres of the same size and specific gravity, the prepared mineral had five times as much surface. Results of a wet chemical analysis and of a spectro-graphic study are given in Table I. Manganese, nickel, tin, indium, thallium, cobalt, and magnesium were not detected spectrographically. All solutions were preparid by -adding reagent-grade chemicals to conductivitv water. which had been previously saturated with the desired gases. Nitrogen and oxygen were purified, but no attempt was made to purify the laboratory air. Radioanalysis was carried out with prepurified Ag110 tracer obtained from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The complete decay scheme for Ae is complex. Its primary emissions are 0.09 and 0.55 mev ß rays and 1.48 mev y raysB and its half-life is believed to be 270 days. In preparation of solutions of AgNO3, the amount of Ag110 added was negligible compared to that of the inert silver. Abstraction of silver from solution by sphalerite was measured after agitation of 1.5 g sphalerite with 20 ml of solution in 50-ml pyrex flasks. All sample preparations were carried out in a dry box so that the proper atmosphere could be maintained. After the mineral had been agitated in the silver nitrate solution, an aliquot of the solution and a sample of the wet mineral were transferred to separate counting vials and weighed. The solid sample was dried and re-weighed and the activity in both vials measured by means of a scintillation counter. With scintillation counting it is possible to count y radiation from the solid and liquid, a distinct advantage over the older ß-ray counting techdiques.4 All measurements of silver activity were made using a sodium-iodide well-type scintillation counter. The amount of zinc in solution was measured colorimet-rically by the monocolor method of Sandell.7 Activation Studies Exchange Between Zinc Ions and Silver Ions During Activation: The increase of Zn++ in solution during activation with Ag+ is shown in Table 11. These data indicate a replacement of one Zn++ by two Ag+. Analysis of a separate two-month agitation test indicated that the replacement of Zn++ by Ag+ was, as expected, in the molar ratio of 2.0.

Jan 1, 1958

By J. W. Stewart

That our American civilization will have extensive postwar problems in such fields as economics, unemployment, and social adjustment is now well understood by all readers of the press and listeners to the radio. But precious little is heard from these sources regarding the impact of the war on education, though education is one of the fields where the effect of the war is going to be felt most-for youth is fighting the war. Unquestionably, serious educational problems will ;rise in the postwar period, challenging the best efforts of our educators. Most acute will be the problems at the college level of education, for it is this age group that will have had its educational process most thoroughly disrupted. The return of these students to our college and university campuses wiI1 bring about a new set of conditions which we might as well try to foresee and begin to prepare for now. To begin with, the average returning college student who has had his education interrupted by war service will certainly be more mature in both years and mental outlook, and possibly married. As a result he will want to finish his college education as quickly as possible. His natural action will be to shop around among the various schools of the country to see where he can get the most credit for work he has done or thinks he has done. It is just possible that what might impolitely be termed "dark - market" schools may arise to cater to his needs. These schools will not think of them- selves in this light, of course, but will be conscious only of a keen sympathy for the veteran student and an urgent desire to help him solve his pressing problems. A considerable number of American colleges are going to be pretty well impoverished before this present war is ended and unless some professional organization takes it upon itself to place this possible situation under supervision and regulation, we may well suffer a serious setback to the

Jan 1, 1944

By P. Pietrokowsky

lntermediate phases in the binary metal alloy systems Ti-Zn, Ti-Hg, Zr-Zn, Zr-Cd, and Zr-Hg have been investigated by X-ray powder diffraction methods. Gamma-TiBHg and Zr3Hg have a beta tungsten structure; TiHg and ZrHg are analogous to ordered AuCu (L l0 type); delta-TixHg and ZrHg, are isomorphous with ordered AuCu,, (L l2 type); ZrZnz is face-centered cubic (C 15 type); TiZna crystallizes in a C 14 type structure; and Zrll-, occurs in cubic and tetragonal modifications in which a random distribution of atoms exists. Additional information for the intermediate phase TiZn, is presented. THE physical metallurgy of titanium and zir-conium when alloyed with elements in subgroup 11-B of the periodic table has received comparatively little attention in the literature. Laves and Wallbaum' reported the existence of several intermediate phases in the system Ti-Zn. They identified TiZn as a CsCl (B 2) structure and described TiZn, as an ordered Cu,Au (L 1, type) crystal structure. Gebhardt' investigated very limited zinc-rich regions in the systems Ti-Zn and Zr-Zn. Phase relationships in these partial constitution diagrams were deduced from the results of thermal analysis and metallography, X-ray results being inconclusive. The first zinc-rich intermediate phase in either system was not identified. More recently, Anderson, Boyle, and Ramsey" have had occasion to refer to a partial Ti-Zn phase diagram (unpublished data) covering the region 0 to 10 atomic pct Ti, wherein two intermediate phases corresponding approximately to TiZn,, and TiZn,, were indicated. The metals used in this investigation and typical analyses as determined by the suppliers are given in Table I. The iodide-process zirconium which was used was not hafnium free. Experimental Methods Alloy Preparation: The relative ease with which titanium and zirconium combine with other elements places extensive restrictions on the methods by which alloying can be achieved. The direct current electric arc melting procedure was found to be unsatisfactory for preparing these binary alloys and for this reason solid state diffusion methods were utilized. The iodide process titanium and zirconium rods were filed by hand. Fines were subjected to a magnetic separation and classified as to size as either finer than 200 mesh or coarser than 200 but finer than 80 mesh. Powder mixtures of various binary combinations of titanium and zirconium with zinc and cadmium were compacted in a 12 mm diameter die and then placed in Vycor or quartz vials which were evacuated and sealed. The mercury alloys were prepared in a similar manner; the proper weight of liquid mercury being placed in a vial with minus 200 mesh titanium or zirconium. These ampoules were then heat treated at various temperatures and times depending on the characteristics of the particular alloy system. Upon completion of the heat treatment the ampoules were cooled rapidly and the specimens weighed. The loss in weight varied from 1 to 3 pct (except as noted in the text) and for this reason the calculated compositions were accepted as a fair measure of the actual alloy compositions. X-Ray Dif raction Techniques: Powder diffraction experiments were conducted at room temperature with a 143.2 mm Debye-Scherrer X-ray camera in which the film was placed in the Straumanis arrangement. When copper radiation was used, a nickel filter was employed, and for the cobalt target a filter of iron oxide was used. In both cases, the /i? filter was placed between the X-ray target and the powder specimen which was mounted on a glass fiber. The lack of information based on optical metallography placed reliance on the results obtained from the X-ray experiments for determination of

Jan 1, 1955

By R. E. Reed-Hill, W. H. Hartt, W. A. Slippy

An unusual form of double kinking has been observed at the ends of {1121} twins in deformed zirconium. These kinks lie partly outside of the twin and partly inside. While they are undoubtedly closely associated with accommodating the twinning shear into the matrix, they are apparently closely related to other important aspects of twin growth. A mechanism is proposed for {1121} twin growth involving interactions between 1/3 (1120) dislocations in the bend planes and twinning dislocations. It is also shown that boundaries without long range strain fields develop at the tapered ends of the twins. The {1121} twins can, therefore, grow without forming high-energy noncoherent twin boundaries containing large numbers of closely spaced twinning dislocations. NUMEROUS investigators have indicated that slip is often closely associated with deformation twinning. An example is twin accommodation kinking,1-3 where dislocations form bend planes and permit accommodation of a twinning shear within the parent crystal. Another is the incorporation of slip dislocations into twins, as proposed by Sleeswyk and verbraak4 and Ishii and Kiho5 for iron and ß-tin, respectively, and observed in hcp metals by Price.6 In addition, it has been shown that shear discontinuities exist at the points of twin intersections in zinc,7 magnesium,8 titanium,9 ß-tin,10 and bismuth," where the continuity conditions for twin intersections, originally proposed by cahn,12 are not satisfied. A similar situation occurs for zig-zag (1121) twins in zirconium13 and ?-phase silver-aluminum alloys,14 where the twinning shears of the two component twins are not parallel. In all these latter cases additional deformation by slip is believed to accommodate the twinning shear discontinuity. The present paper is concerned with a newly observed aspect of the slip and twinning interrelation, in which two kinks, one inside the twin and the other external to the twin, are formed. These kinks, observed in conjunction with (1121) twinning in zirconium, form to accommodate the twinning shear. A model has been constructed explaining the growth and accommodation of (1121) twins in terms of these kinks. This mechanism may be significant since it is concerned with an important twin mode, which occurs not only in zirconium but also in titanium and hafnium. The practical significance of (1121) twinning has been adequately demonstrated. At 77° K the high ductility of zirconium containing a large number of grains unfavorably oriented for slip is primarily due to (1121) twinning.'5 Also, (1121) twins nucleated at 77°K may grow during further deformation at room temperature. This growth can greatly increase the transverse ductility15 as well as produce large mechanical hysteresis effects.= EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Arc-melted, sponge zirconium plate previously described17 was prestrained 0.65 pct at 77° K by cold-rolling to introduce {1121} twins into the structure. Tensile specimens were cut with axes normal to the plate rolling direction. These specimens were pulled in tension to near the point of failure in an Instron machine at room temperature at a cross-head speed of 2 x10-2 in. per min. This additional deformation caused growth of the twins nucleated by prestrain. Deformed specimens were then prepared for metallo-graphic examination. This included an anodizing treatment18 that made the surfaces sensitive to polarized light, permitting small lattice rotations to be revealed. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Nature of the Twin-Kink Band Structure. Fig. 1 is a photomicrograph of a typical specimen after prestrain at 77° K. The structure is characterized primarily by long, narrow, parallel sided (1121) twins which norma1ly traverse the entire grain. Fig. 2 shows several (1121) twins after additional straining at room temperature. These lie near the center of the polarized light photomicrograph and are inclined upward to the right. It is evident that this latter deformation has resulted in appreciable twin growth. The dark regions extending from the ends of these twins are accommodation kinks. The difference in reflected light intensity indicates the

Jan 1, 1969

By E. H. Griswold

The efforts of petroleum production engineers during the past year have largely concentrated upon ways and means of reducing operating investments and expenses in order that the industry may survive a period of low crude oil prices. Major progress was made in outlining and solving the technical problems pertinent to unit operation in order that executives and legal staffs may actually arrange operating contracts to effect unit operation. Consequent savings in development and operating costs, accompanied by increased recovery, will thus be obtained. Well spacing has received considerable constructive thought and study, from which practical results are assured in the near future. The control of edge and bottom waters has advanced in technique through the engineering work done in Yates, Hobbs and East Texas, and there is evidence of greater cooperative efforts between engineers to increase recovery from pools by mutual gas conservation. The use of pressure control by surface and bottom-hole chokes has become general practice to reduce gas-oil ratios. The study of bottom-hole pressures has led to new conceptions of proper utilization of reservoir energy and maintenance of pressure by natural means. Pressure gradients of flowing wells have been measured in practice and strides made to develop workable formulas for the flow of oil and gas mixtures through vertical pipes. The information thus obtained will permit the intelligent design of flow tubing combinations. Gas-lit and repressuring advancements have been few, due to overproduction from naturally flowing wells. Satisfactory unloading valves for gas-lift wells have been developed and consistent progress made in gas-lift displacement pumps. The necessity for producing wells at high rates of flow while producing large quantities of sand has resulted in radical changes in Christmas tree and separator designs for the Oklahoma City pool. The opening of wells to obtain potential production for proration purposes has been eliminated in the Yates and Hobbs pools by the application of engineering principles.

Jan 1, 1932

By Milton Lissberger

MILTON L. LISSBERGER, ? New York, N. Y.-Solder is a mechanical mixture of tin and lead, a fact which is susceptible of very simple demonstration. A bar of solder of a grade even as low as 30 per cent. tin and 70 per cent. lead, passed through a buffing machine, will show a surface practically identical with that of a bar of second-quality or reclaimed tin. The buffings, on chemical analysis, will prove to be almost pure lead. According to the best practice, solder is made in the following manner. Virgin pig lead is first melted, and when it is thoroughly liquefied, virgin pig tin is added, together with a small amount of flux; the latter is for the purpose of bringing to the surface the so-called "liver," consisting of impurities that may have remained in either the lead or the tin as a result of incomplete refining. The combined material, when completely liquid, is thoroughly stirred for some hours, and is then cast into small pigs. Just before casting, and continuously during this operation, the molten metal yields dross, consisting largely of the oxides of lead and tin; this should be carefully skimmed off. After the pigs have cooled, they are taken to a smaller kettle, remelted, and cast into the desired shape for use; or if wires, ribbons, etc., are to be made, the solder is cast into slugs suitable for extrusion and rolling. During this second operation, the skimming of dross should be even more carefully done than at first. Hand mixing has proved to be the only reliable method for the production of the best quality of solder, irrespective of its percentages of lead and tin. The best quality of solder is not necessarily that which contains the highest percentage of tin, but rather is that composition which performs best on the required piece of work. In order to produce

Jan 12, 1918

By Sir Robert Hadfield

Table 1 gives the composition of the specimens listed by the author. The details of test procedure and the results of the tests on mechanical, magnetic and electrical properties and cor-rodibility of the alloys are published in full in a paper by the same author, "Alloys of Iron and Manganese Containing Low Carbon," presented before the Iron and Steel Institute (of Great Britain) and published in full in their Proceedings for 1927, to which reference should be made. After reporting these tests the author gives the following discussion of results:] The studies here reported do not indicate that any of the series has really valuable or useful qualities for industrial applications, though the demands of industry are so varied that it is unsafe to prophesy that no special use will be found for a given material. The non-magnetic property of manganese steel is due to the association of Fe and Mn, but carbon has also an effect, enabling non-magnetic qualities to be obtained with a much lower percentage of Mn than would otherwise be the case; for example, 16 per cent. Mn is necessary for alloys practically free from carbon, while with 1 per cent. C nonmagnetic alloys may be obtained with as little as 7 per cent. Mn. Carbon, however, is the prime cause of the development of magnetic qualities by heat treatment. (Sec section 8 of the paper referred to above.) These Fe-Mn alloys show a resistance up to 87 microhms per c. c., but. as there are other alloys which have a resistance as high as 130 microhms per C. c., this does not provide any new feature of value. The most marked feature of the series studied is the brittleness in the range 3 to 10 per cent., with a maximum of brittleness at 7 per cent. Material with this percentage, while possessing quite appreciable hard-

Jan 1, 1927

By W. W. Scott

The application of engineering methods to the problems connected with drilling and producing in the oil industry has led to the development of the science that is variously termed "petroleum engineering," "production engineering," "petroleum production engineering," and even Itpolitical engineering." It would require much detail to enumerate the qualifications of a petroleum engineer, just as it would for an engineer in any major industry. For those who have a genuine liking for the oil industry, there is a wide selection of pathways to achievement. The oil industry is now highly specialized. Its products are necessary to all civilized people and are indispensable in the security of our nation and also in the well-being of our families. The business structure of our country depends in a large measure upon oil, and the welfare of this group as individuals is certainly linked with the welfare of the oil industry. What Is the Trend of Engineering? The oil industry offers a fertile field of opportunity for engineering; probably more so than any other industry. The sciences of geology, physics, chemistry and mathematics are all used in some phase of the oil industry and to a very considerable extent in the production division, which embraces the geological, drilling and producing departments. In drilling and production alone, research programs of considerable magnitude are being carried on at this time, and no doubt the future will see a great deal more of this kind of work. Through the cooperation of the engineer, the equipment manufacturer, and the American Petroleum Institute, immense savings have been made by the standardization of drilling and production equipment. Drilling equipment in itself offers a wide scope for study, in that continued efforts are being made to improve the equipment so that it can be made to drill faster and to greater depths. The improvements in drilling equipment are required because new reserves of oil are being found at progressively greater depths. In order to produce such oil in competition with oil now being produced from reservoirs

Jan 1, 1937

By K. Huessener

Discussion of the paper of K. HUESSENER, presented at the New York. meeting, February, .1916, and printed in Bulletin No. -110, February, 1916, pp. 443 to 474. KARL NIBECKER, Youngstown, O.-It has been contended that the method of measuring the operation of a blast-furnace boiler plant by means of the amount of steam generated per pound of coke used in the blast furnace is not of any value and even that it is quite misleading. It has been found, in the plant with which I am connected, that, in general, a blast furnace will operate during a month so close to average. conditions that the average monthly measure of the plant efficiency is indicated by the number of pounds of steam made per pound of coke put into the furnace, neglecting the amount of iron made and the amount of gas used for heating the stoves. For some time, it has been our custom to keep a record of this figure and use it as a general indicator of the operating practice. In comparing this figure from two different plants we have found some difficulty, due to differing conditions. It is conceivable but not altogether probable that a slight difference in burden, kind of ore or coke, would account for this difference. The method of using the gas, whether washed or unwashed, and the plant arrangement, may affect this number. For several plants on which we have worked up this number, we have found that most of the ordinary running irregularities are eliminated during a run of a month or more and that the number is, therefore, satisfactory. In connection with a plot of the number of pounds of steam generated per pound of coke, we are also plotting the production of the furnaces and the pounds of coke used per ton of production. With these three curves plotted on the same sheet, we believe that the operating man has sufficient information to judge of the efficiency of his plant' for any month.

Jan 5, 1916

By E. A. Beck

For a number of years many attempts have been made to use thermit in order to do away with piping in ingots. Some of these attempts were successful, while others did not give the expected results. Nearly every plant had its own method of using the thermit, and no special care was taken to study the results or to find the causes for lack of success. Formerly the principle of the process was to decrease the piping by introducing a can filled with thermit, attached to an iron rod, into the head of the ingot directly after it had been poured. In this case the thermit reaction took place in the upper part of the ingot, and it was thought that through the heat produced the head would keep liquid longer and piping thus be reduced. In other words, the aim was to keep the head of the ingot open by making use of the heat of the thermit reaction, which would thereby give the gases in the steel sufficient time to escape. This result can be attained by the application of a large enough quantity of thermit, but it would not be economical in general practice, and could only he used for high-grade material. Many steel-makers abroad and in this country have had this experience. The Th. Goldschmidt A. G., Germany, has, therefore, made a special study of this question with the cooperation of a well-known steel company, and has worked out a new method for the application of thermit for this purpose. The results obtained have been most satisfactory and reliable, and this process is now used in Germany on a large scale in many prominent steel-works. The thermit is applied in cans, as in former years, but the principle of the process is entirely different. The object of using the thermit is not to heat the steel and keep it liquid,

Jan 1, 1914

By N. K. Chen, R. Maddin

Columbium single crystals were deformed in tension and compression. Reorientation by X-rays and stereographic projections of slip traces indicate that plane of slip may be considered as (110). The plastic behavior is shown to be quite similar to the deformation of molybdenum single crystals. STUDIES on the crystallography of the deformation process in body-centered cubic metals have been renewed recently with investigations of iron single crystals1-" and molybdenum single crystals.4 It is now apparent that too many exceptions to the rationalization based upon the ratio of absolute testing temperature to absolute melting point by Andrade5 exist to permit more serious discussion of this type of analysis. The considerations of resolved shear stress utilizing only planes of the type {ll0}, {112), and {123)³,6 permit analysis of the deformation only on the basis of those three types of planes. The suggestions made by Elam7 and by Greninger8 in which the slip process is envisioned as a composite slip on two nonparallel {110) planes can be illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. It may be seen that an unresolved trace on any plane containing a <111> direction may be accomplished by varying the number of atoms participating in the composite process. By further varying the number of atoms in each plane but keeping the ratio of participating atoms constant, jogs could be obtained in the traces and hence wavy slip lines could be produced. Vogel and Brick&apos; studied the behavior of a iron single crystals in which they suggest that the plane of glide is "non-crystallographic" and may be predicted from the intersection between the great circle joining the slip direction and specimen axis with the great circle whose zone axis is the slip direction. In a more recent investigation on iron single crystals, Steijn and Brick" suggest that the slip mechanism may be considered as made up of a type of composite slip occurring on {110} and {112} planes. Evidence for a possible composite nature of the slip process has been presented for the case of molybdenum in the form of analysis of asterism and specimen axis rotation." Definite proof of a composite slip process must, however, await good electron microscopic resolution of the individual traces making up the unresolved optical trace used in determining the acting slip plane. The present investigation was undertaken to study the behavior of columbium single crystals not only in tension but also in compression since the specimen axis migration should indicate the plane or planes of glide in the same manner that the specimen axis migration in tension indicates the direction of glide. The orientations of eleven crystals investigated are shown in Fig. 2. Specific orientations are missing (those in the vicinity of [Ill] and [001] and consequently the effect of orientation on the crystallography of deformation could not be considered. Experimental Procedure The 1/8 in. rods (7 in. long) were subjected to an axial tension in vacuo while at temperatures in the vicinity of 2000°C for 2 to 4 hr. This treatment resulted in large cylindrical grains (about ½ in. long) occupying the entire cross section. A number of these rods were used for the tension studies by observing the behavior of the individual grains. For the compression studies, single crystals approximately % in. long by 1/8 in. in diameter were cut from the rods; the ends were ground parallel. All specimens were polished electrolytically in a solution of 15 cc HF(48 pct) and 85 cc H2SO4 (concentrated) using a platinum cathode, a current density of 0.04 amp per sq cm and a temperature between 25" and 60°C.10 Orientations were obtained using a Laue back-reflection method (3 cm film to specimen distance) with a ½ mm collimator 9 cm long. For the compression specimens, a reference mark was scratched on one of the compression sur-

Jan 1, 1954

By the courtesy of Sir Robert Hadfield, we have received the fol¬lowing communication relating to the development and encouragement of science and research in Germany at present. These statements have been translated by Sir Robert from various German sources, and are presented here as an indication of what Germany is doing not only to further her military power, but also to prepare for the period of trade rehabilitation to which she is looking forward after the close of, the war. KAISER WILHELM TRUST FOR PROMOTION OF WAR SCIENCE The Kaiser has approved the foundation of a Trust with the name given above. The aim of the Trust is to further the development of scientific and technical aids to warfare, by uniting the scientific and the military forces of the country for work together. The scientific Work is to be carried on by the following technical committees (or commissions) (1) Committee for the chemical raw materials, for the production of munitions-manufacturing materials. (2) Committee for chemical war materials (powder, explosives, gas, and the like). (3) Committee for physics, including ballistics, telephony, telegraphy, determination of targets and distances, measurements, and the like. (4) Committee for engineering and communication. (5) Committee for aeronautics. (6) Committee for obtaining and preparation of metals.

Jan 8, 1918

By L. S. Cates

THE war is now behind us. We in the mining industry feel a just pride in the part that our industry and our men and our products played in defeating the enemy on the fighting fronts around the world. In five years of mobilization and actual combat, our mines and oil wells produced over 3 billion tons of coal, a billion tons of petroleum, 500 million tons of iron ore, 21/4 million tons of lead, 31/2 million tons of zinc, 5 million tons of copper, 14 million tons of bauxite, 17 million tons of sulphur, 68 million tons of salt, and 3 million tons of potash. It was an unparalleled performance. But what of today? Why the present low production and high costs? Among the black clouds in the mining sky none are so black as that presented by the labor situation. We know it is the result of the legislation and the interpretation of that legislation in the past ten or fifteen years. Since the passage of the Norris-LaGuardia Act in 1932, we have had nothing but a succession of laws, regulations, and decisions that have intensified the strength of the unions and made the operators of the mines and the sources of their financing prartirally impotent

Jan 1, 1946