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By Alexander Darío Huamán Ccorahua, Cayo Fernando Soto Buendía, Jhonatan Raphael Rojas Ventura

Lithium is a top-quality mineral in the energy market, with growing demand. It has many applications in medical, nuclear, and energy industries. The purpose of this article is to quantify and analyze the economic potential and projected global demand for lithium annually. It aims to determine Peru’s (specifically Puno) positioning in the global context in 2025 and 2030. The article also seeks to identify the main regulatory, environmental, and social challenges to sustainably exploit lithium in Peru. The study employs applied research (mixed approach), descriptive-correlational scope, and observational, crosssectional design. The methodology demonstrates the use of statistical techniques to model and make predictions about this energy-transition metal. Academic sources were reviewed to enable a comparative approach and projection into the future of lithium for development in the mining industry. In the last 10 years, lithium demand has grown, noting a 600% increase in the economy and projected annual growth of +26%. Exponential growth in resources is projected, where econometric, R-multivariable and R-linear models estimate that Peru could supply 1.5% in 2025 and 3% in 2030 of global lithium. Estimated growth of 5–15% in socio-environmental conflicts is projected with the start of lithium exploitation (Peru – Puno). The global potential of lithium demonstrates exponential growth. Lithium reserves in Puno - Peru would rank 13th between 2025 and 2030. It is necessary to establish a clear regulatory framework to avoid excessive increase in socio-environmental conflicts.

Feb 1, 2024

By Thomas J. Lien

Granitic Pegmatite deposits are the chief source of commercial feldspar, micas, lithium minerals, tantalum-columbium, beryl, and certain types of kaolin. The output from pegmatite mines in the United States is small compared to other mineral products in terms of bulk or value, and much of it comprises only minor metals and nonmetals. Nevertheless, pegmatite minerals play a vital part in our domestic industrial economy, particularly in the ceramic and electrical industries. Numerous special purpose uses also are important, even though they require small quantities of raw materials. In recent years, realizing the potential importance of the pegmatite minerals, the U.S. Geological Survey, the United States Bureau of Mines, several state Bureaus of Mines, and a few private companies have carried on extensive programs of pegmatite studies in the New England and southeastern states, in the Black Hills area of South Dakota, in the Rocky Mountain region of Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, and in various parts of Washington, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and California. Currently, some of the pegmatite minerals such as micas and spodumene are selectively separated by the flotation process. To a lesser extent a few plants are selectively floating feldspar and quartz. Much of the credit for the above progress goes to the fine work done by U.S. Bureau of Mines (1), and companies such as Foote Minerals (2). Additional research efforts by the New Mexico Bureau of Mines (3) has successfully demonstrated selective separation of micas, beryl, spodumene, lepidolite, microlite, quartz and feldspar from a complex Pegmatite containing all these minerals. Since the nature of the mineralization of various valuable components of a pegmatite deposit is such that selective separation of some of these can be carried out at a coarse size using the Heavy Media Separation technique, it was felt that such a system should be investigated for selective preconcentration of their minerals. It was also felt that of all the :MS systems available, the DYNA WHIRLPOOL (DWP) device which allows a close control and adjustment of specific gravity should provide a means of achieving the above goal. Once the desired preconcentration of one or more of the pegmatite mineral assemblage is achieved, the available selective flotation techniques should provide effective recovery of various minerals into marketable products. This paper presents technical and economic aspects of selective preconcentration of some of the pegmatite minerals followed by selective flotation to produce marketable products.

Jan 1, 1978

By Jiang Su, Alan Bloodworth

"Composite sprayed concrete lining (SCL), consisting of two layers of permanent sprayed concrete separated by a layer of spray-applied waterproofing membrane, represents the latest development in SCL tunneling, but presents several challenges to designers. This paper aims to address the following issues: (1) how to simulate composite action, (2) behavior of a composite SCL tunnel, and (3) how to utilize composite action to achieve lining thickness efficiency. It firstly sets out the background to the composite SCL concept, and then presents a strategy for numerical investigation. The main part of the paper is the presentation and discussion of the simulation results, focusing on the lining deformation, load sharing and the safety margin of both linings. Interface stresses are also examined. It is found that significant secondary lining thickness reduction may be achieved by utilizing composite action. Challenges for the design of composite SCL tunnels are briefly discussed at the end. INTRODUCTION Sprayed concrete lined (SCL) tunnelling has seen rapid development over the last twenty years in the UK (Su 2013). One of these developments has been the replacement of traditional sheet membrane and cast in situ secondary lining with innovative spray applied waterproofing membrane and sprayed secondary lining system, which has been adopted in recent major projects, such as Crossrail (Pickett 2013), and brings many benefits to the construction (Dimmock et al. 2013). The combination of sprayed primary lining, spray applied waterproofing membrane and sprayed secondary lining is perceived to provide a structurally efficient lining system that outperforms the traditional lining system, which consists of sacrificial primary lining, sheet waterproofing membrane and cast in situ secondary lining. The claimed benefits in structural performance arises from the composite action between the sprayed primary and secondary linings via the spray applied waterproofing membrane, which produces a much stiffer cross-section and therefore a more efficient use of materials. Early investigations on the design of composite SCL tunnels were carried out without (1) definite and reliable long-term interface parameters, (2) a verified numerical modelling technique, or (3) consideration of different stress histories between primary and secondary linings (Thomas and Pickett 2011, Marcher et al. 2011). This paper reports the findings from a numerical parametric study on a typical composite SCL tunnel with varied secondary lining thickness. The results show that the true benefit of composite lining arises from the optimisation of the lining thickness (stiffness) ratio between the primary and secondary linings to achieve secondary lining safety and thickness efficiency at the same time."

Jan 1, 2016

By Steve Kral

"The Rapid Excavation & Tunneling Conference (RETC) is a world-renowned event that attracts some of the best minds in the global underground construction and tunneling industry. The experts gather at this conference to impart new technologies, discuss challenges to their projects and learn about new technologies that have become available to them.The 2015 RETC will be held June 7-10 at the Sheraton New Orleans, in New Orleans, LA. This biennial conference, of which SME is a sponsor, is expected to attract about 1,400 attendees from around the world. These professionals represent all parts of the global tunneling and underground construction industries - contractors, engineers, owners, consultants and equipment suppliers.More than 110 technical papers in 21 sessions will be presented over two-and-a-half days. Paid attendees will receive a proceedings volume of the conference. The proceedings will also be available from SME. In addition to the technical programming, the accompanying exhibit will include 155 exhibitors occupying 175 booths, providing RETC attendees the opportunity to get a look at the latest in equipment and service technology. Three short courses will be held on the Sunday preceding the start of the show. And there will be plenty of opportunities for attendees to meet and chat during several social activities that are scheduled throughout the conference."

Jan 1, 2014

By S. R. Titley

Carbonate-hosted massive sulfide (60%) ores of the western Cordillera compose a distinct class of deposits although they vary widely in detail and perhaps genesis. They have been important sources of lead, zinc, copper, silver, gold, and more rarely, molybdenum, tin, and tungsten in complex mineral assemblages usually dominated by pyrite. They occur as concordant stratiform bodies, as discordant mantos, and as chimneys crossing tens of meters of section; many are associated with faults and breccia bodies. Environments of formation of carbonate hosts range from craton basin to shelf with ages from Proterozoic to Cretaceous; in many instances, dating has shown mineralization to be significantly younger than hosts. Temperatures of formation determined for many deposits are high (200°-400°) and many districts are centers of igneous activity manifested by dikes, sills, and stocks. However, direct cause and effect relationships have been difficult to establish. Many important problems attend the renewed interest and study of these deposits and include questions of metal-sulfur sources, metallization processes and histories, geological controls at all scales, and relationships to broader patterns of metallogeny.

Jan 1, 1985

By Paloma Lazaro, Moe Momayez

Interactions between human beings and their work environment require the body to regulate its temperature by balancing heat production and loss. Comfortable environmental conditions are crucial for keeping workers safe and healthy and to maintain a suitable level of productivity. However, achieving a proper core body temperature may become challenging under different conditions, especially in high heat-generating workplaces such as hot underground mines. Because hot underground mines have the potential to expose workers to heat stress, compliance with standardized and regulated indices and criteria is distinctly required. The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the current research on heat stress and strain in hot underground mines, collected from published and specialized literature. General definitions, statistics of heat-related accidents in mining, overview of the indices, standards, and recommendations for heat stress are provided herein.

Oct 6, 2020

By W. Missildine, J. K. Hrica, I. Benbourenane, T. J. Orr, J. L. Bellanca

Each year, haul truck accidents account for a large portion of mining injuries and fatalities. To better understand why these accidents continue to occur, researchers from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) utilized a cognitive task analysis methodology to identify the user requirements of surface haul truck operators and assess differences in perceptions between operators, managers, health and safety professionals, trainers, and maintenance personnel. Additionally, researchers used the critical decision method to focus on better understanding the cognitive demands, decision-making, and problem solving during nonroutine incidents. The preliminary results of this study identify and explore themes within the broad categories of hazards, skills & expertise, and training and provide detailed accounts of nonroutine incidents such as near-misses, loss of control, and collisions. These accounts reveal insights into operator decision making and event progressions that can then be used to build more realistic training scenarios and address hidden hazards and root causes of these incidents. These results, along with potential solutions offered by study participants, can inform future research and help identify creative interventions that can be used by mine operators to address haul truck safety issues

Mar 2, 2022

By Peter Keppler, Charles Jackson

WHY DO AN AUDIT? There is increased enforcement of environmental laws and regulations at State and Federal levels with attendant steep fines and even the possibility of jail sentences. We are all aware of environmental and public health and safety incidences (i.e., Love Canal, Bhopal) which have led to stringent laws and regulations (i.e., CERCLA, RCRA, SARA). In some cases, the courts have specified that a company institute an audit program as a condition of settlement of claims which related to lack of environmental control. The U.S.EPA issued an Environmental Auditing Policy Statement in the November 8, 1985 Federal Register (pp. 46504-46508) which encourages the use of environmental auditing by regulated entities. Elements of what EPA considers to be an effective environmental auditing program are outlined and briefly explained. These factors combine to indicate why there is a growing number of companies which have instituted an audit program. Briefly, the program can and should be used to monitor compliance with environmental regulations and corporate policy, to prevent violations, to improve policies and procedures, to raise the level of environmental awareness, to encourage communication among operations and all management levels about environmental problems, and to measure risks and control costs. AMAX Inc. has had an environmental audit program since the early 1970's. The AMAX Environmental Affairs Department, working with the Law Department, oversees and coordinates environmental audits and analyzes the findings which an audit reveals. Facilities are audited on a regular schedule; those having the greatest potential for environmental liabilities are audited at least annually; other facilities are audited less frequently. The question of who performs the AMAX audits was settled in favor of the audit team being independent of personnel from the facility being surveyed. Other methods of auditing could be the following: - Independent contractor (Appendix A) - Combination of independent contractor and in-house staff - Self-audit by site personnel The merits and demerits of who should conduct the audit can be analyzed to suit your particular needs. Next you need to decide on the procedure for the audit and the form for reporting and follow up. Environmental publications referenced in Appendix B can be helpful to you at this point. After deciding on the form of auditing, a schedule is prepared and followed to the closest extent possible. This schedule should be published and distributed to the sites so facilities know when they are being audited. This is not designed to be "a game of hide and seek." Various elements of the AMAX Audit Program are as follows: Team selection Pre-visit preparation Site visit Exit interview Report Using the audit Follow-up Team Selection The usual make-up of the team is the audit manager, the environmental specialist who normally provides assistance to the site or has knowledge about the operation, and a legal representative if his or her schedule allows. The legal representative will review the findings of the audit team if a personal visit is not timely or necessary. Size of the team can be expanded, but a minimum of the audit manager and the environmental specialist is best. Two sets of observations are better than one. The environmental specialist can also provide the rapport which is beneficial to creating the appropriate tone so that the site people will be as cooperative as possible. This is not to be an antagonistic exercise.

Jan 1, 1991

By Staff

In 2012, the estimated value of mineral production increased in the United States for the third consecutive year. Production and prices increased for most industrial mineral commodities mined in the United States. While production for most metals remained relatively unchanged, with the notable exception of gold, the prices for most metals declined. Minerals remained fundamental to the U.S. economy, contributing to the real gross domestic product (GDP) at several levels, including mining, processing and manufacturing finished products. Minerals? contribution to the GDP increased for the second consecutive year. Trends in other sectors of the domestic economy were similar to those in mineral production and consumption rates (Table 1). After continued decline following the 2008-2009 recession, the construction industry began to show signs of improvement late in 2011 and throughout 2012, with increased production and consumption of cement, construction sand and gravel, crushed stone and gypsum, mineral commodities that are used almost exclusively in construction.

May 1, 2013

By Jerry L. Fuller

Fan performance graphs are generated by digital computer using two programs, RUN- FANS and FANPLOT. RUNFANS calculates fan performance data from stored specific-volume, specific-speed data for a given fan type with appropriate allowances for fan diameter, rotational speed and air density. FANPLOT accepts specifications for drawing the graph and accepts either user-supplied pressure-quantity data or RUNFANS- calculated data as input, Operational procedures for both programs are detailed and examples of their interactive query routines are included. The hardware necessary to generate the graphs is illustrated. Several hardcopy output options are discussed,

Jan 1, 1984

By U. S. Geological Survey Staff

"In 2017, the total estimated value of nonfuel mineral production in the United States increased by 6 percent from 2016 (Table 1). The value of metals produced domestically increased by 12 percent and the value of industrial minerals produced domestically increased by 3 percent. Some metal commodity values (cobalt, magnesium metal and palladium) increased by more than 35 percent in 2017 from 2016 owing to higher prices.Some U.S. metal mines and processing facilities remained idle in 2017, including three primary aluminum smelters in Indiana, Missouri and Washington; a titanium sponge facility in Utah and a byproduct vanadium production facility in Utah. In contrast, new gold mines opened in late 2016 and 2017 in Nevada and South Carolina, respectively, and iron ore mines in Michigan and Minnesota restarted or operated for the full year. In addition, increased oil and natural gas drilling activity led to increased production of some industrial mineral commodities that are used for oil and gas drilling. Production of some industrial minerals, especially those used in infrastructure and residential construction, remained essentially unchanged in 2017, a reflection of the limited growth in construction activity. The production of some metals, including iron and steel, aluminum and other nonferrous metals and nonmetallic mineral products increased. Overall, mining activity trended upward as the result of increases in coal mining, oil and gas extraction and metal mining (Table 2).Discussion of mine production is commonly segmented according to the type of materials produced within the broad categories of metals and industrial minerals (also known as nonmetallic minerals). Industrial minerals can be further subdivided as construction aggregates and other industrial minerals. Metals tend to have higher unit values but very low production quantities compared with those of industrial minerals, such as crushed stone or construction sand and gravel, which have higher production quantities but are lower-valued materials. Therefore, for discussion and analysis of the performance of the nonfuel minerals industry, the value of production is used rather than the tonnage produced. Tonnages of natural aggregates are orders of magnitude larger than those for most other mineral commodities, thus making direct comparisons based on weight meaningless (Fig. 1)."

Jan 5, 2018

By D. Brandt

The Dos Pobres Mine is a copper oxide heap-leach operation located near Safford, AZ. Mine production is 163 kt/d (180,000 stpd) with a stripping ratio of 2:1. During the startup phase of the mine, the required fragmentation size was easy to achieve as the ore was highly weathered and fractured near the surface. As the mine depth increased, the proper fragmentation size became harder to achieve due to less weathering and different rock types. Because copper recovery increases as crusher product size decreases, achieving the appropriate product size at the crusher is the operating priority. The engineering department began a project to improve fragmentation through blasting and thus increase throughput in the crushing system. It soon became clear that input from other departments was going to be required to make this a safe and economical project. Therefore, the crush and convey and ore control departments worked together to evaluate all available data on blast patterns and explosive loads and tracked performance and results. Using image analysis, drill energy index and databases, improved fragmentation size has been achieved and results have been verified while controlling costs.

Jan 1, 2011

By PETER ROBINSON, KEVIN BARBER, OLIVER WHATNALL

Investigation and uptake of filtered tailings continues to grow throughout the globe. This is driven by a wide range of site-specific considerations, which include such factors as tailings characteristics (e.g., amenability to filtration), production rates, climate, water availability, cost drivers, environmental requirements, and social factors. Despite the aforementioned technological growth, the currently available filtration technology is not able to meet the needs of many operations and projects that would otherwise adopt the technology. Experience with large-scale industrial filtration shows that vacuum belt filter systems meet the needs of many modern users, exceptions being the inability to effectively dewater tailings at altitude and/or with a fine particle size distribution: a potential fatal flaw. This paper presents a case study on the utilization of the patented Viper Filtration technology on gold tailings to overcome this challenge and shares the resultant full-scale plant design, highlighting the features designed to overcome cost and scalability deterrents. This technology is a novel mechanical process which complements the vacuum pressure in dewatering the filter cake as it travels along the belt filter. This project commenced with a pilot testing program, which successfully met the objective to rigorously test, measure and record any performance improvements achieved when engaging the Viper technology. Of the two tailings products tested, gross improvements of 4.2%w/w and 5.7%w/w were achieved when compared to the conventional vacuum belt filter operation. This pilot testing facilitated measurement of operating and design data, which forms the basis of the full-scale system design and resultant equipment supply of three vibration roller assemblies for retro-fitting on the existing vacuum belt filter.

Jan 25, 2021

By Wang Xuewen, Bao Qingbao, Xie Jiacheng, Yan Zewen

This study puts forward a virtual memory cutting method based on the prediction of AFC shape. The integrated key technologies include the generation of virtual teaching cutting curve, the height adjustment strategy of front and rear drum, cutting height adjustment strategy, the reciprocating cycle of cutting technology and so on. Through the two algorithms, SVM and ELM, the form of the next working cycle can be obtained by rolling prediction using the form information of AFC in the first several circulations. Based on the obtained dynamic fluctuation of the form in the vertical and horizontal working faces, the position and cutting information of the shearer during its operation can be controlled and predicted in advance, the memory cutting template can be adjusted and modified in time. Employing this method, the more stable, accurate and timely memory cutting of the shearer under the uneven coal seam could be realized.

Aug 16, 2021

By J. A. Ober

"In 2016, the estimated value of total nonfuel mineral production in the United States was $74.6 billion, a slight increase from the revised total of $73.4 billion in 2015 (Table 1). Increased construction activity spurred increased production of industrial minerals, especially those used in infrastructure and residential construction. Although starting the year relatively low, prices for several metals, especially for some of the precious metals, began to trend upward. Decreased production of most metals produced in the United States, however, contributed to an overall decline in the value of metal production.Several U.S. metal mines and processing facilities were idled or closed permanently in 2016, including iron ore mines in Michigan and Minnesota; three primary aluminum smelters in Indiana, Missouri and Washington; one secondary zinc smelter in North Carolina; a titanium sponge facility in Utah and titanium mineral operations in Virginia. In addition, in May, the weekly average rig count for oil and gas drilling reached its lowest level since the 1940s when that measurement was first recorded. The reduced drilling activity resulted in decreased production of some industrial mineral products used in the drilling sector. Trends in mineral-related sectors of the domestic economy declined or held steady, except in the manufacturing of nonmetallic mineral products and nonferrous metals excluding aluminum, which increased. Overall, mining trended downward as the result of significant declines in coal mining, oil and gas extraction and metal mining (Table 2). Discussion of mine production is frequently segmented according to the type of materials produced within the broad categories of metals and industrial minerals (also known as nonmetallic minerals). Industrial minerals can be further subdivided as construction aggregates and other industrial minerals. Metals tend to have higher unit values but very low production quantities compared with those of industrial minerals, which have higher production quantities but are lower-valued materials, such as crushed stone or construction sand and gravel. Therefore, for discussion and analysis of the performance of the nonfuel minerals industry, the value of production is used rather than the tonnage produced. Tonnages of construction aggregates are orders of magnitude larger than those for most other mineral commodities thus making direct compar"

Jan 5, 2017

By R. L. Grayson

Focusing on relationships between severity measure versus productivity and other factors, this paper presents a comprehensive study of injuries for U.S. underground coal mines in 1996 by mine size. Based on analyses of data, generally the larger the mine, the more productive it is (in tons per employee-hour), but the more severe is its injury experience (r = 0.65). Within very large, large, and medium mine sizes, however, the more productive the mine, the less severe is its injury experience (r =-0.43, -0.36, and -0.26, respectively). For small and very small mines, a more deeply nested analysis is required to understand relationships. Other interesting relationships and comparisons are presented.

Jan 1, 2000

By Robert B. Crookston

This paper presents a resume and status report: of mining technology appropriate to commercial oil shale development in the United States today. The nature and extent of oil shale in Colorado and Utah are discussed. A look at most of the prominent activities now underway emphasizes the questions "where are we now?" and "where are we going?" Various alternate mining methods are reviewed and a bibliography of oil shale mining is included.

Jan 1, 1980

By Jr. Raleigh

As part vi the development of the Coal Quality Expert (CQRN) --a computer program capable of predicting the impacts of coal quality on power plant performance, costs, and emissions control--several nationally important coals are being characterized to augment the coal quality database associated with the software. The project is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) under the Clean coal Technology Program. Since 1989, CQ Inc. (a subsidiary of EPRI) has characterized seven bituminous coals from Alabama, Illinois, Kentucky and Oklahoma and six sub-bituminous coals from the Powder River Basin (PRB) in Montana and Wyoming. Coals from the PRB region--being burned more frequently in Midwestern and southern power plants to reduce emissions of sulfur oxide compounds--can sometimes contain significant concentrations of potentially toxic elements. Although no limits were imposed on air toxics emissions from fossil-fuel fired utilities by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, future regulations may be implemented at the conclusion of Federally-mandated emissions studies. One possible result is that any increased utilization of coals, including those from the PRB, may depend on the potential for removing toxic trace elements prior to combustion.

Jan 1, 1993

By Peter W. Lipman

In the Rocky Mountain region, variations in Tertiary mineralization correlate with changes in tectonic setting and associated igneous activity that can largely be related to tectonics along the west boundary of the American plate. Successive settings include compressional tectonics and associated continental-arc igneous activity; transitional igneous types associated with intra- and back-arc extension; and basaltic or bimodal basalt-rhyolite assemblages associated with Basin and Range extension in- ward of a growing transform boundary between Pacific and American plates.

Jan 1, 2013

By H. Kinilakodi

In 2008, the authors developed a methodology for identifying underground coal mines at high risk for major-hazard events. It focused on major hazard-related violations of safety standards associated with high-risk conditions. Later, using a sample of 103 mines with 2008 and 2009 data, injury measures and U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) citation data were combined into a safe performance index (SPI). The SPI was used to assess the relative safety-related risk of mines, including by mine-size category. In this paper, comparisons are made of SPI-associated, normalized safety performance measures across mine-size categories, with emphasis on small-mine safety performance as compared to large and medium-sized mines. Mining Engineering, 2011, Vol. 63, No. 10, pp. 73-77. Official publication of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc.

Jan 1, 2011