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By Stafford McKnight, Larissa Koroznikova, Steve Hall, Cameron Klutke

This paper outlines a simple methodology for mineral characterisation, developed as part of the Australian Mineral Industry Research Association (AMIRA) managed research project P777 ?The Development of Heavy Suspension Techniques for High Density Separations (Replacement of Clerici?s Solution)?. The project was sponsored by De Beers, Rio Tinto and Iluka Resources. Heavy mineral characterisation of samples arising from exploration, mining or metallurgical processes is frequently conducted using laboratory heavy liquid analysis. Unfortunately, there are only a limited number of high density (?heavy?) liquids and these tend to be more toxic as their density increases. Low-toxicity inorganic solutions, based on tungsten compounds, have been developed that can be utilised at relative densities (RD) up to 3.0. Beyond this value organic liquids can be used, however this presents significant health and safety hazards. Diiodomethane (methylene iodide) having a relative density of 3.31 is commonly used. Mixtures of thallium formate and thallium malonate were found in the early 1900?s by Clerici to provide liquids having specific gravities between 4.0 and 5.0. For the characterisation of the heavy components of mineral sand deposits (e.g. anatase RD 3.9, rutile RD 4.2, ilmenite RD 4.4 ? 4.7 and zircon RD 4.6 ? 4.8) there is currently no heavy liquid alternative to Clerici?s solution. Clerici?s solution is highly toxic and testing is now conducted by few laboratories worldwide with costs reflecting the chemical costs, infrastructure costs and health and safety regimes (e.g. blood testing of exposed staff). A simple laboratory technique of density fractionation has been developed, employing suspensions of fine tungsten carbide particles in lithium heteropolytungstates solutions, that can replace Clerici?s solution in the evaluation of fine mineral sands samples (e.g. -250 +150 microns). The developing methodology that can achieve low-cost, low toxic separations at relative densities above 4.0 is outlined and the comparison of results with Clerici?s solution presented. In addition, preliminary work on density fractionation of zircon samples is presented. Zircon fractionation relates to their inclusion, radionuclide content and metamictization.

Jan 1, 2007

By M. J. Leeuwner

Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) modelling is used to research the complex flow structures that exist in a hydrocyclone. By simulation of a two phase (water and air) flow system, the internal flow and multiphase interactions are investigated. The suitability of CFD modelling as a design tool is further evaluated by examining the effect of varying device dimensions. Three hydrocyclone geometries, used in previous studies, are specified. A transient simulation approach, which employs the Reynolds Stress Model as turbulence model and the Volume of Fluid model as multiphase model, is followed. Results are validated qualitatively against experimental measurements from the previous studies. Keywords: CFD modelling, hydrocyclone, Reynolds stress model, multiphase flow

Jan 1, 2008

By B. E. Ydstie, B. F. Lund, K. R. Løvåsen, B. A. Foss

The paper presents sensitivity analysis for a dynamic model of submerged arc silicon furnaces. The model we study, called ?Simod?, was developed by Elkem in cooperation with NTNU and Sintef. It is today a much used tool in Elkem for operator training and analysis of the dynamic behaviour of the silicon production process. The aim of our work is to bring the simulator tool closer to industrial practice, and construct a mechanism to adapt the model to the behaviour of a running process, online. The paper presents the results of the sensitivity analysis that has been undertaken for important parameters in the Simod model. The parameters associated with the process inputs are electric power loss, loss of fixed C and reactivity of carbon. The output signals that have been investigated are fed quartz, tapped silicon and silica. The paper also interprets the results of the sensitivity analysis in a process operation context.

Jan 1, 2004

By J. von Schéele

OXYFINESTM is an oxyfuel-based concept for in-plant recycling. It enables the possibility of fines, dust, sludge (without any drying step) and other by-products generated by the steel- and metal-producing industries to be recycled directly back into existing processes or a separate on-site unit. The results from a full-scale installation (20 000 t/a) and pilot-scale trials with dry and wet materials in the steel and ferroalloy industries are presented. The latter include materials arising from ferrosilicon, ferrochrome and silicon manganese production. The concept not only provides a solution to the problems associated with dust and sludge generated in metal production, it also turns these materials into a low-cost raw material which is useful for the same production process, thus replacing some of the raw material input. If required, it could also be used, possibly as an intermediate solution, to convert the dust or sludge into an inert material with a suitable shape. Under some conditions, a directly saleable product could also be obtained. The paper reviews this technology, its status and benefits as wells as its possibilities with regard to application in ferroalloy production. Keywords: recycling, fines, dust, sludge, ferroalloys

Jan 1, 2004

By D. Hoffmann, S. Plumb

IRUP is an iron-rich ultramafic pegmatite rock that formed due to hot ironrich fluids and gases replacing local stratigraphic zones of the Bushveld Complex. This study focuses on the estimation of the probability of IRUP occurrence on the Merensky Reef at the Marikana Karee Mine. A 2.15 million centare IRUP-rich domain at the Karee Mine was initially defined from the interpretation of a surface aeromagnetic anomaly, and exposures in the mine workings. Surface boreholes (spaced 250-500 m apart) within this IRUP domain contain approximately equal numbers of IRUP-replaced and IRUP-free intersections. Owing to the uncertainty in the continuity of the IRUP alteration (a result of the wide borehole spacing), the risk associated with the development of mining infrastructure within this domain is unquantifiable. Semi-quantitative data comprising visual estimates of IRUP replacement from reef development mapping data and surface borehole reef intersections was interpolated into blocks using indicator kriging estimation. Comparative analyses of the estimate of IRUP occurrences were made by changing the block size and declustering the data systematically. Reconciliations of the probability of IRUP predicted from the block models derived from the different data-sets and sequential indicator simulation models were analysed for four mining study blocks. A quantitative approach to modelling the occurrence of IRUP can be an additional tool for refining the estimate of the geological losses that inform the mine plan in such high-risk zones.

Jan 1, 2015

By M. J. Papo, A. Muwila

Hercules? is a low nickel austenitic stainless steel developed at Mintek that has a typical composition of 9 wt% Mn, 0.05 wt% C, 2 wt% Ni, 0.25 wt% N and 16.5 wt% Cr. A more corrosion resistant version of Hercules? (Hercules? B) with 0.5 wt% Mo has also been developed. Potentiodynamic tests performed on Hercules? B in a 5 wt% sulphuric acid solution showed it to have improved corrosion resistance comparable to that of AISI 304. The effect of a varying Mn content on the corrosion resistance of Hercules? B has also been investigated and the results discussed in this paper. From the corrosion test results, it is clear that decreasing the Mn content of Hercules? B increased the corrosion rate while increasing it decreased the corrosion rate. KEYWORDS Austenitic stainless steel, %ferrite, molybdenum, manganese, nitrogen, electrochemical corrosion tests, potentiodynamic scans, microstructure, chemical analysis.

Jan 1, 2006

By G. Swan, E. Nordlund, P. Zhang

"SynopsisThe most widely used support design damage criterion for rockburst-prone mines is based upon kinetic energy, which is proportional to the square of the ejection velocity and is commonly expressed in terms of peak particle velocity (PPV). Field monitoring and back-analyses have shown that ejection velocities of the order of 10 m/s and higher can result from seismic events of moderate magnitude. Such velocities are much higher than those predicted using PPV obtained from scaling laws. It has also been found that the peak ground motion (i.e. PPV) on the surface of an excavation is preferentially amplified (by four- to tenfold) compared to the motion in solid rock at a similar distance from the source. However, the wave propagation and interaction processes involved within the fractured rock in generating high ground motion are very complex and are not well understood at this time.In this paper, velocity amplification was investigated by modelling the dynamic interaction between fractured rock and a free surface using a 2D discontinuum-based numerical program, UDEC (Universal Distinct Element Code). A 1D model with a fractured zone was used to represent the fractured rock. Velocity amplification, quantified by PPV, predicted at the free end of the model was 2.0–3.6 times higher than the input velocity. It was found that the wave frequency, fracture stiffness, fracture spacing, and thickness of fractured zone are the main factors that affect the velocity amplification. The results have proved that the interaction of the seismic wave and multiple fractures near the free surface strongly influences the ground motion.IntroductionSince mining-induced seismicity is almost inevitable in deep mines, ground support is generally employed to mitigate the risk of seismically-induced damage. The most widely used support design criterion for seismicallyprone mines is one that seeks to maximize the absorption of the kinetic energy (plus potential energy if a gravity component is considered) of key rock blocks. Based on this criterion, design methods for rock support were first proposed by Wagner (1984) in South Africa and later improved, among others, by Roberts and Brummer (1988) and Kaiser et al. (1996)."

Jan 1, 2015

By M. Arlandi, J. C. Monge

In this paper, the finite element method is used to obtain deformations of a rock tunnel. More than 3,000 numerical simulations and calculations were carried out. The analysis of this results has allowed to achieve mathematical formulations and graphs, to obtain in advance support monitored displacements in tunnelling construction, so they can be predicted before excavation and supporting woks. The application of the presented formulations and charts will aid engineers to control tunnel monitoring, reducing decision time when problems occur. The analysis is limited to cases involving elastic behaviour of the terrain for tunnels of average to good quality in rock, and to excavation sections of average or smaller dimensions for road tunnels. The results show that, in all cases, mathematical expressions to obtain induced displacements around tunnel excavations, have similar pattern than Kirsch (1898) expressions for circular excavations. As corollary of the achieved results, a method to estimate in situ natural geostress ratio K0=sh/sv , by means of convergence measurements, is presented. In diesem Beitrag wurden die Verschiebungen eines Tunnels durch die Methode de Finiten Elemente berechnet. Mehr als 3000 numerische Simulationen und Berechnungen wurden ausgeführt. Die Analyse dieser Resultate hat es ermöglicht, mathematische Formeln und Grafiken zu entwickeln, die zur Voraussage der Verschiebungen in Tunnel dienen, auch unter Betrachtung der verschiedenartigen Abstützungen. So können die Verschiebungen vor den Erdarbeiten und dem Bau der Abstützung abgeschätzt werden. Die abgeleiteten Formeln und Grafiken werden vor allem einen grossen Dienst für Ingenieure bei der Mithilfe zu zeitsparenden Entscheidungen im Tunnelbau und bei der Tunnelkontrolle leisten. Die analysierten Fälle sind auf eine elastische Modellierung des Baugrunds beschränkt, sowie auf eine mittlere bis gute Qualität des Felsens und auf die Aushebung von Abtragungsabschnitten mittlerer oder geringer Grösse für den Strassenverkehr. Die Resultate zeigen, dass in allen Fällen die hergeleiteten Formeln zur Berechnung der durch den Tunnelbau verursachten Verschiebungen um den Tunnel die gleiche mathematische Struktur haben wie diejenigen von Kirsch (1898) für kreisförmigen Bodenaushub. Als Korollarium der ausgeführten Berechnungen wird eine Methode zur Abschätzung der vorherrschenden in situ Geospannungs-Verhälniss K0=sh/sv angegeben, die von den Messungen der Verschiebungen im Tunnel ausgeht. Dans cet article, la méthode des éléments finis est utilisée pour obtenir les déformations d’un tunnel creusé dans la roche. Plus de 3000 simulations numériques et calculs ont été effectuées. L’analyse de ces résultats a permis de définir des modèles mathématiques et des abaques afin de prédire, avant l’excavation et les travaux de soutènement, les déplacements auscultés pendant la construction du tunnel. L’application de ces modèles et abaques permettra donc aux ingénieurs de contrôler les déplacements durant l’auscultation du tunnel et de réduire le temps de décision lorsque des problèmes surviennent. L’analyse est limitée au cas du comportement élastique du terrain pour des tunnels creusés dans de la roche de moyenne a bonne qualité, et à de sections d’excavation de petites à moyennes dimensions pour des tunnels routiers. Les résultats montrent que, dans tous les cas, les expressions mathématiques permettant d’obtenir les déplacements induits autour des excavations de tunnel, présentent des similitudes avec celles de Kirsch (1898) pour des excavations circulaires. Comme corollaire aux résultats obtenus, une méthode pour estimer le rapport des

Jan 1, 2003

In order to deliver a quality shotcrete and concrete product underground for the extensions to the Cullinan Diamond Mine operations it was decided to develop a new, simpler concrete product to meet underground support requirements. The aim was to develop a concrete product that not only reduced costs but also met the performance criteria of the current range of concrete products used on Cullinan Diamond Mine, a 25, 45 and 60 MPa concrete and a fibre reinforced wet shotcrete. The concrete product batching and delivery system was to be from surface as opposed to the current underground batching systems. The operational principle was to include an automated surface batching plant with delivery of the concrete product to a borehole containing suspended pipelines delivering to an underground storage facility from where the product is delivered to the working area by further pumping or agicars. Keywords: concrete, shotcrete, full flow, frictional loss, pipeline transport, positive displacment pump

Jan 1, 2006

By E. Pezennec

A voluntary comprehensive environmental Risk Assessment was launched at the end of 2004 by the International Chromium Development Association. The completion is scheduled for mid 2006.EURAS, a leading environmental consultancy, was commissioned for this project, as this firm wrote in particular the Metals Environmental Risk Assessment Guidelines, the reference document for the metals and metals compounds, in particular for the forthcoming European new Chemical Policy and the Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). This project follows a stepwise approach, comprising 3 distinct steps: - Initial Risk Assessment: compilation, evaluation of the existing effects and exposure data for chromium III compounds and chromium metal. This information will be used for the compilation of an initial Risk Assessment Report. - Data gap analysis: which type of additional effects data should be collected and/or which exposure scenarios merit a more detailed targeted risk assessment? Recommendations and/or suggestions for further research will be formulated. - Road map: prioritization and ranking of the different proposed research programs. The presentation will mainly focus on the results and recommendations of the initial environmental Risk Assessment from an International perspective and not from an European point of view. - Hazard assessment ? definition of the Predicted Non effect Concentration (PNEC) for each environmental compartment (water, sediment, soil) - Exposure assessment ? definition of the Predicted Environmental Concentrations (PEC) for each environ-mental compartment - Comparison of the local PEC with PNEC for the chromium III compounds and chromium metal EU industry sectors covered in the project: mining of chromite, metallurgical production of chromium metal, chromium containing alloys production, production of trivalent chromium chemicals and the main applications (pigments, leather tanning, etc..). The current status on the environmental Classification and Ranking for chromium III compounds, Chromium metal and its alloys in the GHS will also be covered.

Jan 1, 2007

By J. A. de Carvalho Junior

This paper analyses the impact of the uncertainty associated with the input parameters in a mine planning optimization model. A real example was considered to aid in the building of a mathematical model that represents the coal production process with reference to the mining, processing, and marketing of coal. This model was optimized using the linear programming concept whereby the best solution was perturbed by the stochastic behaviuor of one of the main parameters involved in the production process. The analysis of the results obtained permitted an evaluation of the risk associated with the best solution due to the uncertainty in the input parameters.

Jan 1, 2012

By A. Meek

This report compares the compressed air driven rocker shovel to the newly developed Warthog Non-throw development end loader. The two machines were compared on aspects such as safety, loading potential, energy efficiency and costs. The objectives of the comparison were to determine whether or not the replacement of the rocker shovel with the Warthog will be operationally and financially justifiable. The results from this study were obtained from underground observations and time studies on the machines, as well as consultations and data collection at the shaft and suppliers. This paper compares only the Warthog loader to the Trident 215 rocker shovel used at Anglo Platinum?s Brakspruit shaft and does not compare the other models of rocker shovels, which are fundamentally the same but will have different loading potentials and specifications. Cleaning times for the rocker shovel are based on underground observations at Brakspruit shaft. These times can be influenced by factors such as blasting practices, compressed air pressure and operator experience and skill. For this reason the times will most likely vary at different shafts. The Warthog cleaning times are based on manufacturer specifications and results from trial stages and therefore further work is required to confirm cleaning times achieved.

Jan 1, 2009

By F. T. Cawood, M. A. Jooste

This paper describes the survey monitoring processes at Venetia, which are discussed under visual inspections, ad hoc investigations, system monitoring and slope stability radar monitoring. This is followed by a description of the main survey monitoring methods. The next section briefly states typical problems, i.e. the atmospheric corrections required to adjust total station distances, maintenance of the system and management of the monitoring process. The paper ends with some important lessons that could be applied to similar monitoring programmes. These lessons are firstly, communication is most important, process a vital part of the system, a champion must take responsibility for the programme and system planning ensures that the monitoring results are needs driven.

Jan 1, 2006

Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) spectroscopy, combined with cyclovoltammetry, has been successfully used to study the interactions between ethyl xanthate, heptyl xanthate, dithio-phosphate and propyl trithiocarbonate flotation collectors and a gold surface. Large, easily measurable responses have been obtained in the potential areas where the thiol collectors are known to interact with gold. The four collector types lead to differing SPR maximum values, with longer alkyl chains resulting in higher SPR responses, and the trithiocarbonate leading to the highest response values. The SPR responses differ considerably from the current density response at very anodic and cathodic potentials. There are indications that thiols might still be adsorbed at potentials as low as-300 mV (vs SHE). Keywords: flotation collectors; thiol collectors; cyclovoltammetry; surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy.

Jan 1, 2005

Abrasivity and wear resistance are not intrinsic properties of materials, but rather parameters describing the interaction between the wear part and the material exerting the wearing action. Moreover, wear or, at least, that part of the wear which is due to the cumulative effect of minute scratches, is linked to the hardness disparity concept. Abrasivity, in this context, is a relative concept, pertaining to a metal-rock pair, rather than to a rock. Based on this assumption, a methodology has been developed and checked against actual cases, enabling description of the abrasiveness of arock or the abrasion resistance of a metal through the ratio of comparable quantitative indicators. The paper describes the methods and provides examples of applications to practical cases(namely: rock cutting, excavation by means of tunnel boring machines (TBMs), rock crushing, and hydro-mill cutting).

Jan 1, 2012

By L. A. Cornish, L. H. Chown, M. Matema, R. Süss, L. Glaner, A. Douglas

Mintek has been developing Pt-based alloys for high temperature applications in aggressive environments, for example, land-based turbine engines, to replace the currently used nickel-based superalloys (NBSAs). The Pt-based alloys have a similar structure to the NBSAs, and since Pt is more chemically inert and has a higher melting point, the Pt-based alloys can potentially be used at higher temperatures. The greater chemical inertness of the Pt-based alloys compared to the NBSAs means that coatings can be simpler, or perhaps not even used at all, depending on the environment. TEM work was done at NIMS, Japan, to investigate the changes in the microstructure o f Pt-Al and Pt-Al-Ir alloys at elevated temperatures using in-situheating up to1100°C. Initial casting trials showed that work needs to be done to optimise casting parameters before commercialisation can take place. Room temperature tensile tests were performed and results were variable mainly due to microstructural differences. The alloy hardnesses were in the order of 300-350HV with ultimate tensile strengths of ~800 MPa and elongations of less than 10%. These results are comparable to other alloys used at high temperatures, which is very encouraging. Keywords: platinum, super alloys, hardness, tensile

Jan 1, 2006

By C. Musingwini

The Bushveld Complex is economically significant and strategically important to South Africa, thus it is imperative that optimal extraction of platinum group metal (PGM) resources on the Bushveld Complex is achieved. Optimal extraction broadly requires that the maximum amount of ore is extracted by excavating and hauling the minimum amount of waste in the shortest possible time, at the least cost, and in the safest and most environmentally acceptable manner. In open-pit mine planning this entails among other things, minimizing the waste stripping ratio, whereas in underground mine planning it includes minimizing the metres of waste development. In conventional mining, the main development that is in waste or partly in waste and defines the mining grid pattern includes levels and raises. It was prudent to consider optimizing level and raise spacing in conventional mining because the method is a prevalent mining method on the Bushveld Complex accounting for nearly 70% of platinum production.

Jan 1, 2010

By C. M. Rule

Stirred milling using either horizontal or vertical mills has made a rapid entrance into PGM ore and tailings concentrator flow sheets. Currently there are in excess of 40 units installed in either mainstream, ?MIG? or intermediate concentrate regrind, ?UFG?, applications in PGM, primary ore treatment plants or in tailings scavenging and reclamation treatment plants. This represents a total of approximately 70 MW of installed fine grinding equipment. This paper outlines the reasons why the technology take-up has been rapid and illustrates the advantages of this technology over conventional milling. Keywords PGM, platinum group metals, UG2, Merensky, platreef, stirred milling, MIG?mainstream inert grinding, UFG?ultra fine grindingof intermediate flotation concentrates, IsaMill?, Metso SMD?, Deswik, ceremic grinding media, QEMSEM, MLA.

Jan 1, 2011

Abrasivity and wear resistance are not intrinsic properties of materials, but rather parameters describing the interaction between the wear part and the material exerting the wearing action. Moreover, wear or, at least, that part of the wear which is due to the cumulative effect of minute scratches, is linked to the hardness disparity concept. Abrasivity, in this context, is a relative concept, pertaining to a metal-rock pair, rather than to a rock. Based on this assumption, a methodology has been developed and checked against actual cases, enabling description of the abrasiveness of a rock or the abrasion resistance of a metal through the ratio of comparable quantitative indicators. The paper describes the methods and provides examples of applications to practical cases (namely: rock cutting, excavation by means of tunnel boring machines (TBMs), rock crushing, and hydro-mill cutting).

Jan 1, 2012

Many industries base their decisions on the assaying of tiny analytical sub-samples. The problem is that most of the time several sampling and sub-sampling stages are required before the laboratory provides its ultimate assays using advanced chemical and physical methods of analysis. As long as each sampling and sub-sampling stage is the object of due diligence using the theory of sampling it is likely that the integrity of the sought after information has not been altered and the generated database is still capable to fulfil its informative mission. Unfortunately, more often than not, unawareness of the basic properties of heterogeneous materials combined with the unawareness of stringent requirements listed in the theory of sampling, lead to the conclusion that massive discrepancies may be observed between the expensive outcome of along chain of sampling and analytical custody, and reality. There are no areas that are more vulnerable to such misfortune than sampling and assaying for trace amounts of constituents of interest in the environment, in high purity materials, in precious metals exploration, food chain, chemicals, and pharmaceutical products. Without the preventive suggestions of the theory of sampling serious difficulties may arise when making Gaussian approximations or even lognormal manipulations in the subsequent interpretations. A complementary understanding of Poisson processes injected in the theory of sampling may greatly help the practitioner understand structural sampling problems and prevent unfortunate mistakes from being repeated over and over until a crisis is reached. This paper presents an overview of the theoretical, practical and economic difficulties often vastly underestimated in the search for quantifying trace amounts of valuable or unwelcome components.

Jan 1, 2010