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By A. M. Bryukhanov, A. G. Mnukhin

The report states accident rates for gassy/dusty coal mines represented as an ergatic system "man – machine - environment" with further analysis by the method of conditional probabilities. A coal mine has been analyzed with allowance for the attending personnel, equipment and environment as a sequence of events and states. Probabilities of operational states have been determined and prediction of mine behavior has been made on the basis of investigation findings for equipment and the personnel states, and analysis of the environment (i.e. mine and mining conditions). Utilization of expert estimation methods has been considered for determining major operational parameters of gassy/dusty mines. The importance of standardized values of permissible occupational risks (permissible probability of accident, PA) is demonstrated. It is also stated that a procedure is essential to determine these values, involving regular check-ups of the integral safety criterion at all mines and further development of customized recommendations for individual mines on efficient improvement of accident situations. Methodology to determine the assessment criteria has been developed and scientifically substantiated for permissible accident rates in hazardous industries.

Jan 1, 2003

By M. G. Maruma

The effect of the amount of cold reduction and annealing temperature on the evolution of the texture of AISI 441 steel is reported. The steel was cold rolled by 62%, 78%, and 82%, followed by isothermal annealing of each sample at 900°C, 950°C, and 1025°C for 3 minutes. The crystallographic texture was determined by Phillips X?Pert PROMPD texture diffractrometer. Microstructures were characterized using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).The results show that sample that received 78% cold reduction and annealing at 1025°C presented the highest Rm-value and lowest ?R-value, which would enhance its deep-drawing capability. In addition, this sample showed the highest intensity of shifted ?-fibre, notably {554}<225> and {334}<483>. It can therefore be concluded that the ?-fibre, which favours deep drawing, is optimal after 78% cold reduction and annealing at 1025°C.

Jan 1, 2013

This paper provides a review of the chemical reactions occurring in the submerged arc processing of chromite ores. The excavations of industrial furnaces have shown that the charge, as it descends through the furnace, passes through a number of distinct reaction zones. Each zone is characterised by differing process conditions and reaction products. The phase equilibria, reaction steps and mechanisms occurring as the charge progresses through the furnace are examined, and the potential influences of these factors on the process outcomes are discussed.

Jan 1, 2004

Deep level block caving as a mining method is becoming more popular due to the fact that it is the lowest cost per ton underground extraction system. However, many block caves do not achieve their full potential due to draw horizon instability. In this paper five design rules are given to overcome this problem. The design rules described are applicable for slusher and trackless block caves where the operational depths exceed 500 metres.

Jan 1, 1999

By N. Simpson

Low carbon 11.5% chromium stainless steels are finding increasing use in industry as square or rectangular tubing material for the construction of structures by welding. During processing, resistively welded circular pipes are bent into square or rectangular shapes. During this process longitudinal cracks can sometimes develop atone of the inner corners of the section. An investigation has shown that the processing of round into square tubing with very sharp corners can cause excessive cold working at the inner corners of the squared tube. This, together with the high tensile residual stresses and a susceptible microstructure due to the presence of grain boundary carbides, can result in brittle cleavage cracking. Measures that can be used to reduce the problem are described.

Jan 1, 2003

By I. Fedotov

One of the most effective methods of metal surface heat treatment is through laser hardening. In most cases, laser parameters are determined experimentally, which is expensive and time-consuming. A mathematical model for the surface heat treatment process will allow a significant decrease in costs, and reduce the time required for optimization. In the present work, the authors present a mathematical model for laser heat treatment with forced cooling which can be applied to medium carbon steel. The model is based on a three-dimensional heat transfer equation using Green?s function. The model allows one to calculate the temperature of the treated steel at different depths below the surface with and without cooling, for set values of the laser power and travelling speed, when the heat transfer coefficient is a known constant. It also takes variations in the radiation adsorption coefficient on the metal surface and laser beam spot size into account. The model was illustrated by comparing calculated and experimental temperature profiles of mild carbon steel with 0.5% C with and without cooling. A reasonably good agreement was achieved between experimental and predicted values to ensure that a high enough austenizing temperature with short enough cooling time was reached for direct martensite formation. It also predicted the depth of treatment accurately. The incorporation of cooling in the model substantially improves previous models based on heat transfer only. It delivers a tool that can with a reasonable accuracy predict the depth of surface heat treatment and cooling time required from operational parameters, such as laser power, speed of motion, and distance between laser and cooling source, that can be controlled in the work set-up. This can eliminate trial and error efforts and result insignificant time and cost savings. Keywords Laser, surface treatment, martensite transformation, carbon steel, heat treatment.

Jan 1, 2011

By E. Laine

Rock density determinations are necessary for ore resource evaluations from estimated block grades in g/t. Rock density depends on the mineral composition and, thus, it is specific for each rock type. The rock density distributions for different rock types are often symmetric. Hence, the arithmetic mean is a good approximation for the average density for lithological units. However, there may exist spatial variation in density values due to alteration, fracturing and original heterogeneities such as layering. This study compares the kriged density model with the one with constant density values for different lithological units in the evaluation of metal amounts in rock blocks. The case study consisted of rock densities measured from the drill cores at Ahmavaara PGE deposit in northern Finland. The used Ni contents were simulated in accordance with the spatial distribution of rock densities. The Ni amounts in 2x2x2 m3blocks are higher for the kriged densities than for the average densities. The difference is increasing with the increasing metal amounts due to the nonlinear correlation between Ni content and rock density. The final effect on the resource estimation depends on the cutt off grade and prices of the metal, for example, for a very valuable metal the small differences are significant

Jan 1, 2003

By L. Holappa

Ferroalloy production is an energy-intensive industrial sector with significant CO2 emissions. In this paper the current situation in ferroalloy processes is discussed from the standpoint of global environmental issues, trends and development. Progress and data of ferroalloys production are frequently compared with the steel industry, which is a closely related sector and the main user of ferroalloys. Emission factors of processes and electricity production are examined as well as possibilities and future scenarios of how to diminish CO2 emissions. As a part of this study a questionnaire was submitted to experts in the field of ferroalloys worldwide to survey opinions on the ferroalloy industry today and in the near future (2020). Eighteen questions concerning raw materials, energy, environmental aspects, by-products and economic aspects were responded to by seventeen experts, the answers were analysed and conclusions were drawn. Keywords Ferroalloys, energy, CO2 emissions, electricity, sustainability, questionnaire.

Jan 1, 2010

By A. Asadi

Subsidence phenomenon as an unwanted consequence of underground mining can cause problems for environment and surface structures in mine area. Surface subsidence prediction for inclined and steep seams has been given less attention than horizontal seams due to the difficulties involved in the extraction of such coal-seams. This paper introduces a new profile function method for prediction of surface subsidence due to inclined coal-seam mining. The results of calculation with the new function indicate that the predicted value has good agreement with the measured data. Keywords: subsidence; coalmining; caving mining methods; longwall mining; profile function.

Jan 1, 2005

By N. P. Mahumapelo

This paper is based on a study to determine the potential beneficiation opportunities for marble from Griekwastad in the Northern Cape Province. The marble was characterized mineralogically by X-ray diffraction. Major and trace elements were determined using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. The sample was crushed, and the crushed material beneficiated by tumbling and polishing. The resulting beads were incorporated into a variety of jewellery and other decorative items. It is concluded that the beneficiation of Griekwastad marble presents a good opportunity for value addition and job creation, provided that an effective marketing strategy for the products can be developed..

Jan 1, 2014

Models are used in engineering to reproduce reality as faithfully as possible so that the expected response of a system for given actions or inputs can be determined. In the field of rock engineering, both empirically based and numerical models are widely used to determine the likely response of the rock surrounding excavations. Many of the empirical models are developed from statistical analysis of case histories or from direct observation; however, empirical models are limited because they should be used only within the range of conditions of the observational database. Synergy exists between empirical and numerical models, because empirical models can be used to calibrate and validate numerical models. The empirical approach can benefit from the capability of numerical models to investigate specific mechanisms, which would not be possible using observations alone. Two cases are presented in which the synergy between empirical and numerical models is demonstrated. The first case examines the analysis of discontinuity effects on the strength of slender pillars in limestone mines, and the second case evaluates the effects of stress orientation on coal mine entry stability. It is concluded that numerical model calibration and verification comprises an important first stage in the successful application of models in rock engineering design. Application of numerical models allows mechanisms and interactions of various parameters to be analysed, greatly improving the understanding of the system. The improved understanding can be used to extend the application of empirical design methods, resulting in improved safety and efficiency of rock engineering designs.

Jan 1, 2014

By J. N. Van der Merwe

The research described in the paper was aimed at providing standardized information of cases of failed and intact coal pillars in the form of databases to researchers. It also offered the opportunity to take stock of the pillar stability situation in coalmining and to review the impact of the application of the safety factor formula for pillar design. It was found that the physical parameters of coalmining have not changed substantially over the last four decades. However, changes in the controllable parameters like pillar width, pillar width-to-height ratio and percentage extraction have all moved toward the more conservative side. Scrutiny of the database indicates that of all the failures recorded, only 23 occurred in panels that were mined after 1969, when one can assume that the safety factor formula was fully applied. If the pre-1969 practices had been continued, at least 144 collapses would have been expected. There has thus been a substantial reduction of pillar collapse cases, justifying the cost paid for the formula, which has shown to be in the region of 600 million tons of coal. It is evident that that are distinct differences in the natures of the failures among different coalfields. This justifies the attempts to derive seam or coal field specific strength formulae and is a topic that should be pursued.

Jan 1, 2006

By C. Ringas

Pipelines are used extensively in industry to convey various products. Internal corrosion of pipelines can lead to perforation and leakage of the product. A growing problem, not often accurately recognized, is internal corrosion of pipelines caused by bacteria. Microbiologically-induced corrosion (MIC) refers to corrosion caused by a variety of micro-organisms. This form of corrosion is not widely recognized in many industries, although it is widespread and causes many corrosion problems in pipelines, both internal and external. Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are responsible for the bulk of the corrosion problems caused by MIC. Corrosion caused by SRB is found extensively in water pipelines conveying raw, potable and waste water, as well as in pipelines conveying slurries. This problem also occurs in pipelines conveying crude oil. This paper describes internal corrosion problems of slurry pipelines caused by bacteria and outlines mitigation methods to improve slurry pipeline integrity, thereby extending the life of such pipeline

Jan 1, 2007

By Y. Z. Ma

This paper presents a matrix formulation of factorial kriging, and its relationships with simple and ordinary kriging. Similar to other kriging methods, factorial kriging can be applied to both stationary and intrinsic stochastic processes, and is often used as a local operator. Therefore, the concepts of intrinsic random function and local stationarity are first briefly reviewed. Kriging is presented in a block matrix form in which the kriging solution is useful not only for understanding the relationships between simple and ordinary kriging methods, but also the relationships between interpolative kriging and factorial kriging. When used as a signal/noise-filtering method, factorial kriging is especially useful for multiscale modelling. Examples for general signal analysis and geophysical data signal filtering are given to illustrate the method..

Jan 1, 2014

By Braam Blom

PK2 Ventilation shaft is part of Paardekraal No 2 twin shaft system that is being developed to replace depleting Merensky reef production at Paardekraal shaft complex. The sinking team at this shaft faced considerable challenge of improving the total sinking cycle in order to be able to deliver the fully equipped shaft on time and on schedule. The cladding support cycle was identified as the tedious and time consuming activity in the overall shaft sinking operation. Reduction in the time required for handling and setting up the support installation equipment, and the time required for subsequent installation of the necessary support has a direct impact on the overall cycle time, and consequently the overall productivity and efficiency of the sinking operation. This reduction in support cycle was achieved by making use of machine carousel. The objective of this paper is to describe the support methodology that was used during the ventilation shaft sinking and the use of the machine carousel to reduce the cladding support cycle. The machine carousel replaces the traditional use of machine kibble in conventional vertical shaft sinking and has been designed specifically for installation of sidewall support at the shaft bottom during the sinking process.

Jan 1, 2009

By R. C. D. Phillis

The management of critical resource inventories is an important productivity lever and a significant risk factor?risk in the sense that poor resource availability lends itself to disempowerment of workers, unsafe work practices, wasted spending (high unit costs),and poor quality of work (including mining waste/rework). Most underground platinum mines experience lost blasts that directly lead to reduced productivity. In most surveyed shafts, 30% of lost blasts can be attributed to shortages of critical material and/or equipment. The problem is prevalent despite the existence of conventional transitory surface and underground stores. This paper discusses the introduction of buffer stores as a complementary materials storage system in order to improve health and safety in mines as well as reduce lost blasts. Both quantitative and qualitative results have shown that buffer stores result in dramatic improvements in productivity and are readily acceptable by stakeholders. Keywords Buffer stores, lost blast.

Jan 1, 2011

By A. McLean, M. Iwase, K. Wakimoto, K. Katogi, Y. Kikuchi

One of the greatest obstacles to the application of physical chemistry principles to the elucidation of slag-metal reactions is a lack of knowledge of activities of the reacting species. To a large extent, oxygen potential of the slag phase governs iron and steelmaking practice. Without oxygen control by means of appropriate sensors, the behaviour of the other elements cannot be managed. In this paper, measurements of the FeO activity with various types of electrochemical FeO sensors will be described together with examples of their applications for improved strategies toward better practice for ladle metallurgy and sulphur and manganese distributions between slag and metal phases during steelmaking. Measurements of FeO activity have also been made in order to improve dephosphorization reactions. This type of work has led to significant reduction in volume of slag generated within the steelmaking vessel, which in turn has important implications for refractory wear, metal yield, alloy recovery and improved productivity. Finally, an on-line sensor is described that permits the oxygen potential to be determined for both the metal phase and the slag phase during steelmaking in the BOF.

Jan 1, 2004

By P. Altounyan

Techniques used to safely control the roof in UK coal mines for some 10 years have been applied to a South African coal mine. This new approach known in the UK as advanced rockbolting technology, is based on applying four fundamental principles: ?Understanding the roof failure mechanisms ?Using an effective roof support system ?Designing this support using measurement ?Monitoring the performance of the system. The paper summarizes the approach in detail and describes how it is being applied by Anglo Coal, giving results obtained to date. Investigations at a number of South African coal mines, including stress measurements at two Anglo Coal mines, have confirmed that the mode of roof failure (lateral shearing due to horizontal stress) is the same as in other coalfields worldwide, and aspects of current world best practice, including the use of advanced technology rockbolting, are therefore relevant in South Africa. The stress measurements indicated a high level of stress field anisotropy and further investigation of stress conditions in South African coal mines is recommended. The most effective bolting system to resist shear failure is one with high bond strength and stiffness. Short encapsulation pull testing of existing South African systems confirmed that they have low bond strength and stiffness. An improved rockbolt system with the required performance, and features allowing rapid installation and installation quality and performance audit, has been developed and is currently under full-scale trial. Design by measurement and routine monitoring procedures including the use of a rotary telltale device are also under trial. It is anticipated that South African coal mines will be able to obtain significant safety and productivity benefits from the application of this technology.

Jan 1, 2001

Quantitative seismology is an important tool for investigating mineinduced seismicity and the quantification of the seismic rock mass response. The spatio-temporal interpretation of seismic data within an ever-changing three-dimensional mining environment provides some challenges to the interpretation of the rock mass response. A grid-based approach for the interpretation of spatial variation of the rock mass response provides some benefits compared with approaches based on spatial filters. This paper discusses a grid-based interpretation of seismic data. The basic methods employed in the evaluation of the parameter values through space are discussed and examples of applications to different mine sites given.

Jan 1, 2014

By C. Musingwini

The Bushveld Complex is economically significant and strategically important to South Africa, thus it is imperative that optimal extraction of platinum group metal (PGM) resources on the Bushveld Complex is achieved. Optimal extraction broadly requires that the maximum amount of ore is extracted by excavating and hauling the minimum amount of waste in the shortest possible time, at the least cost, and in the safest and most environmentally acceptable manner. In open-pit mine planning this entails among other things, minimizing the waste stripping ratio, whereas in underground mine planning it includes minimizing the metres of waste development. In conventional mining, the main development that is in waste or partly in waste and defines the mining grid pattern includes levels and raises. It was prudent to consider optimizing level and raise spacing in conventional mining because the method is a prevalent mining method on the Bushveld Complex accounting for nearly 70% of platinum production.

Jan 1, 2010