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By E. P. Ferrero

Crude oils from fields throughout the world are analyzed by the Bureau of Mines to determine the characteristics of the oils and their contribution to the petroleum resources of the world. Analyses are reported for 169 foreign crude oil samples from 122 oilfields in Africa, Asia, Australia, the Caribbean, Europe, North America, and South America. Tables show the geographic and geo- logic origin of the samples, names of companies that supplied the samples, annual production for the fields, general characteristics and analytical and computed data, hydrocarbon-type data, cumulative production of the larger fields, and references to sources of geological and field development information. The analyses were made by the Bureau of Mines routine method and comparisons may be made with more than 8,000 other such analyses.

Jan 1, 1972

By E. P. Youngman

Zirconium, formerly distinctly a rare element, is rapidly becom- ing of rather extensive commercial importance. Economic features of the zirconium industry, together with general information regarding the metal and its compounds, are discussed in a separate paper, to which this paper is a supplement. In addition to giving a brief discussion of the four or five de- posits that so far have proved to be commercial sources of the element, this circular summarizes available data (including some hitherto unpub lished material from the files of the Bureau of Mines) upon other occur- rences, including many of scientific interest only, of the two commercial. minerals, zircon and baddeleyite, and also data upon some of the minor minerals, such as eudyalite and cyrtolite, which have attracted addition- al interest in recent years because they are frequently richer in hafnium than the more common zirconium minerals.

Jun 1, 1931

By Aleksandar D. Bugarski, Robert J. Timko

Despite extensive research efforts conducted in the past decades, occupational health risks associated with exposure to nano and ultrafine aerosols emitted by diesel power equipment are still not completely understood. The complexity of physical and chemical properties of diesel aerosols, constantly changing with the implementation of advanced diesel emissions control technologies, make this task rather challenging. The objective of this paper is to identify and characterize nanometer and ultrafine aerosols emitted by diesel engines in the underground environment and evaluate the effects of selected contemporary control technologies on physical properties, chemical composition, and in-vitro toxicology of diesel aerosols. The physical and chemical properties of the nanometer and ultrafine diesel aerosols are to be characterized through a test series in the NIOSH Lake Lynn Laboratory experimental mine. The crucial part of the study has been development of a facility that allows researchers to generate field results with precision and accuracy characteristics of a laboratory environment. The knowledge obtained from this study should strengthen our understanding of the health implications related to exposure to diesel particulate matter and aid in assessing the potential of various control technologies for reducing this exposure.

By Harry Perry

One of the most notable achievements of the iron and steel industry in the United States in this century has been the general increase in productivity of individual blast furnaces and the reduction in coke rate. Most of the improvement in furnace operations has occurred within the past decade. During this time the output of the average furnace increased about one-third, while fuel rates decreased from 15 to 20 percent. For example, in 1949, the iron and steel industry produced 811.2 short tons of pig iron per blast-furnace day with a coke rate of 1,870.4 pounds per ton of pig iron, By 1960, the average production of pig iron per blast-furnace day had risen to 1,182.4 tons, while the coke rate had decreased to 1,497 pounds per ton of pig iron. These figures are averages for the entire industry; many furnaces produced over 2,000 tons per day and one furnace, operating on pellets, reached 2,700 tons of pig iron per day, Coke rates of individual furnaces varied, but some furnaces operated on less than 1,200 pounds per ton of pig iron. The significance of this decrease in coke rate is shown clearly when data on pig-iron production and coke consumption in 1959 are compared with 1948. In 1948, 57.3 million short tons of coke was charged into blast furnaces to produce 60.1 million tons of pig iron; in 1959 only 47.6 million tons of coke was needed to produce 60.2 million tons of pig iron. Thus, in 1959, nearly 10 million tons less coke was required to produce about the same amount of pig iron as was produced in 1948.

Jan 1, 1962

By Fred E. Fiedler

A demonstration project investigated the feasibility and effectiveness of two management interventions, Management Training and Organization Development, for improving productivity and safety in metal/non-metal mines. The management training intervention was conducted at Texasgulf Company's trona mine, using three nearby trona mines as controls. The Organization Development intervention took place in Hecla Mining Company's Lucky Friday mine, using the highly similar Star Mine as control. The two management interventions seemed about equally effective in reducing accidents and injuries, as well as MSHA citations, and the management intervention at the Texasgulf mine also appeared to have led to substantial improvement in mine productivity.

Jan 1, 1983

By Arnold M. Lansche

DOMESTIC OUTPUT of white arsenic, As2O3, was derived entirely as a byproduct of smelting arsenic-containing copper ores by The Anaconda Company at Anaconda, Mont., and American Smelting and Refining Company at Tacoma, Wash. Arsenic metal was not produced. Consumption, and Uses.-Most of the white arsenic produced in 1964 was consumed in manufacturing lead and calcium arsenate insecticides. In the 12 year period since 1951 the production of lead arsenate insecticide has varied between 7,800 tons and 4,900 tons, indicating that lead arsenate has maintained its position in competition with organic insecticides.

Jan 1, 1965

By H. A. Schrecengost

Information presented herein was gathered by examination of 29 fluidized- bed thermal coal dryers and by conferences with manufacturers and users of such equipment to determine what safety features could be incorporated in design, installation, and operation to minimize fire and explosion hazards. Fire and explosion hazards are inherent in certain types of coal dryers in that high temperatures are employed; the sizes and volatility of material handled are capable of propagating explosions; and drying gases are seldom, if ever, low enough in oxygen content to prevent ignitions of dust clouds, distilled gases, or their combinations. This is especially true for fluidized- bed dryers in which the coal is dried in air suspension and in which atmospheric air is constantly introduced to temper the heated furnace gases. Occurrence of fires on heated bedplates, in dust collectors, and in hot gas inlets was common in nearly all the dryers examined. Forceful explosions which produced external effects had occurred in 11 (39 percent), and internal "puffs" or "bumps" had occurred in at least 24 (79 percent) of the plants examined in the study.

Jan 1, 1965

By J. Roth

The purpose of the present study is to increase the safety of explosive storage. This was accomplished by: a) review of the histories of recent and past magazine explosions to define causes and trends; b) observation of present-day explosive storage conditions and practices at active mines; c) examination of existing Federal regulations on explosive storage to determine whether they address all conceivable safety problems, whether they contain redundant or obsolete standards, and whether their intent is clearly stated; d) recommendation, for safety improvements and for revision and clarification (if necessity) of governmental regulations. Magazine explosions are rare. A recent increase in magazine explosion frequency must be attributed to a large increase in deliberate (criminal or malicious mischief) explosions. Fires of various origins account for the remaining explosions of the past decade. During 1884-1926 several lightning-generated explosions occurred in non-metal magazines, but none recently. It appears that the contents of a well-constructed, metal magazine are immune to direct lightning strikes, regardless of whether the magazine is grounded or not grounded. Grounding a metal magazine cannot be harmful, but it may well be superfluous. Magazines were observed at 34 widely separated mines and storage problems were discussed with personnel at these mines. In general, storage conditions and practices were found to be satisfactory. Usually, only small quantities of explosives are stored on mine property since most explosives are brought in by suppliers when needed. MSHA and BATF standards on explosive storage appear to cover safety aspects adequately. However, certain revisions are recommended to clarify some of these standards and to reduce inconsistencies in their enforcement.

Jan 1, 1983

By M. F. Bucek

This report summarizes the activities performed and the results achieved during a two-phased investigation of the technical and economic feasibility of disposing of coal mine refuse underground in active mines, Three coal regions in the United States that are most severely affected by coal refuse disposal problems are identified: southwestern Pennsylvania, southern West Virginia, southwestern West Virginia and eastern Kentucky. For each region, a conceptual mine model is presented that describes the geologic conditions, mining methods, and environmental circumstances typical of that region. The model mine that was prepared for the Kanawha Region in Southwestern West Virginia and eastern Kentucky was selected as the basis for developing alternative conceptual designs of underground disposal systems in the second phase of this investigation. Procedures used in selecting the regions and in modeling typical mines are described in Part I of the report. Part II of the report describes existing methods for stowing refuse underground, presents three alternative conceptual designs of stowing system that would be appropriate for the model mine postulated in the first phase of the study, discusses technical characteristics and environmental effects relative to the various systems, and evaluates the technical and economic feasibility of the three alternative disposal system designs. Comparisons costs among systems and with costs or surface disposal are presented.

Jan 1, 1980

By M. M. Tilman

Etchants containing hexavalent chromium and sulfuric acid are used in a variety of surface-finishing operations. When the resultant spent solutions are discarded, substantial quantities of chromium are lost and pollution prob¬lems are created. To minimize the undesirable environmental effects while improving metal and minerals recycling technology, the Bureau of Mines is con¬ducting research on a method for the economic inplant recycling of these waste etchants. Trivalent chromium, produced when the etchant reacts with a substrate, is oxidized in the anode chamber of a diaphragm cell; other metals, dissolved during the etching operation, are transferred to the catholyte. When waste brass etchants are treated in this manner, all of the trivalent chromium is oxidized and more than 40 percent of the copper and zinc is removed. Similar copper removal and chromium oxidation are achieved with waste printed circuit board etchants and rinse waters from plastic etching operations. The electrical energy needed to regenerate 1 kg sodium dichromate is less than 9 kwhr. Regenerated brass etchants evaluated by two companies equaled or exceeded the performance of fresh etchants.

Jan 1, 1979

By C. Melvin Lepper

The Bureau of Mines has developed an improved earth resistivity field system which employs a novel technique for obtaining null measurements. The instrument is designed to operate reliably in high-noise environments such as those found in the vicinity of operating mines. The system consists of a low-frequency transmitter, a sensitive receiver and an external battery pack, each in its own case to provide protection from the elements. The receiver and transmitter units have self-contained recharge-able batteries to supply power to the circuitry and separate built-in battery chargers that operate on standard 115 Vac power. The system is portable and simple to operate. Measurement accuracy, reliability, and dynamic range are superior to most commercially available equipment even though less time and effort is required to make null readings. Unlike some commercial systems, long integration times are not required to enhance signal-to-noise ratio in areas of high background noise.

Jan 1, 1974

By W. E. Schroeder

Two underground installations of the sprayfan system are described and evaluated. The spray fan proves capable of reducing by 1300 percent downtime due to high methane. Spray fan face ventilation at 20 ft brattice setback is shown to give improved methane control over conventional sprays at 10 ft setback. In addition, this report describes: ? A simple method for determining the most economical application of ventilation for face methane control ? The effect of place variables (primary ventilation, auxiliary ventilation, seam height, etc.) on methane concentrations ? The correlation of methane concentrations with brattice setback. These results are utilized to suggest a safer and more economical approach to face methane control.

Jan 1, 1981

By Robert W. Metcalf

Corundum, natural alumina, or aluminum oxide (A1203) is the hardest mineral known except diamond. Theoretical composition is Al 52.9 percent and 0 17.1 percent, but it always contains small quantities of impurities, chiefly silica, iron, and lime. The melting point of corundum is above 1950° C., and it is insoluble in the strongest acids. Its hardness (9 on the Mohs scale) varies slightly according to purity, and its specific Gravity ranges from 3.95 to 4.10, 4 being a fair average. The index of refraction is 1.760 to 1.768 and its streak is white. Luster is adamantine to Vitreous, come specimens pearly, and color varies widely from white, gray, pink, and blue to black, brown, or bronze. Gem varieties are transparent or translucent, and of more brilliant coloring - red, blue, yellow, purple, or green. Corundum occurs in opaque massive or block structure with parting planes little developed or only roughly delineated and in granular form as minute crystals or small, irregular grains interspersed throughout the contact zones of schists and gneisses.

Jan 1, 1944

By G. W. Jones

"INTRODUCTION As part of its work in promoting safety, the Bureau of Mines is investigating various means of eliminating or mitigating the explosion hazards of combustible gases encountered in mining and industry. Information has been obtained and a procedure developed whereby the explosibility of many complex gaseous mixtures may be calculated in a rather simple manner without the necessity of performing laborious laboratory experiments. An earlier publication 3/ described the method of determining by calculation the limits of inflammability of gaseous mixtures, including methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. The information published in the above report permitted calculation of the limits of inflamnability of such gases as are liberated by mine fires, gases from explosives, automobile exhaust gases, gases present after mine explosions, blast-furnace gas, and other gases of similar type.Gases liberated in certain potash mines in the western part of the United States sometimes contain ethane, in addition to the gases named. An investigation was made to obtain data from which the limits of inflammability of such gaseous mixtures could be determined by calculation. 4/Similar data have been Published covering all types of natural gases containing wide ranges of concentration of nitrogen and carbon dioxide.5/"

Dec 1, 1944

By H. E. Thomas

[The Bureau of Mines has conducted a field hydraulic fracturing experiment to determine the preferential orientation of induced fractures in oil shale at a depth of about 400 feet in the Green River Basin of Wyoming. The hydraulic fracturing treatment was performed by injecting extremely viscous water-base gel and 8- to 12-mesh sand into the oil shale through straddle packers set in an impermeable section of smooth-walled, 6-1/4-inch-diameter open hole. An impression packer proved that a horizontal fracture, which has an average width of about 1/2 inch at the borehole, was induced. A corehole drilled 100 feet from the fractured well intersected the fracture and confirmed its horizontal orientation. Because a horizontal fracture was successfully initi¬ated, it is inferred that the creation of multiple, closely spaced horizontal fractures may be feasible in Green River Basin oil shale.]

Jan 1, 1972

Ecuador a gross domestic product (GDP) grew 8% despite a slowdown in production and sales of petroleum, the dominant economic sector. Crude petroleum exports, which amounted to about 35% of total exports in 1977, were valued et $484 million,2 a decrease of 14% from 1976 values. Petroleum export sales were depressed because foreign buyers were somewhat uncertain that State-owned Corporación Estatal Petrólera Ecuatoriana (CEPE) held legal title to the oil until final settlement with Ecuadorian Gulf Oil Corp. In addition to the legal complication, Ecuador maintained a relatively high export price for oil until late in the year. There was also a shrinkage of traditional U.S, markets owing to the Alaskan pipeline becoming operational and an increased availability of Mexican supplies. The export market was also affected by increased domestic production in Peru and Chile, which lessened their import needs, and the pressure of greater competition from the Middle East in supplying crude oil to Caribbean refineries. About 20.4 million barrels or 40% of Ecuador's total crude exports went to the United States. Only 27 wells were drilled in Ecuador during L977; of these, 16 produced oil, 3 were dry holes, and 8 were suspended. About 31 wells were planned for 1978. Three new oilfields were discovered during 1977; two by CEPE in northeastern Ecuador and one by the Argentine State oil company Yacimientos Petraliferos Fiscales (YPF), operating in Ecuador under a service contract. CEPE's two discoveries tested at 5,000 and 1.450 barrels per day, respectively. The YPF discovery tested at about 1,000 barrels per day. Ecuador altered its position regarding

Jan 1, 1981

By Olman Hee

This study investigates the identity and relative importance of factors affecting the future demand for phosphate rock, potash, and nitrogen. The main objective is to analyze demand relationships for these chemical raw materials for some specified past period, and to utilize this information to make projections of consumption into some designated future period. The end-use approach is used, which divides total consumption of each chemical raw material into agricultural, industrial, and export use. Multiple regression analysis is employed to statistically measure the relative effects of the different factors on consumption in each end use. The general method centers on the construction of a consumer demand model, the fitting of the respective equations in the model, and the interpretation of the statistical results. Direct and cross price elasticities of demand are computed for each end use of the chemical raw materials. These give an insight into expected changes in consumption with respect to given changes in price. The results of this study indicate that price, consumer income, and level of technology are factors which measurably affect consumption of chemical raw materials. For phosphate rock and potash, the agricultural and industrial end uses showed an inelastic demand, whereas for nitrogen, all end uses (including export use) exhibited an elastic demand. Among the chemical raw materials, average annual growth of consumption of nitrogen for agricultural and export uses to 1980 is expected to be notably higher than that for phosphate rock and potash.

Jan 1, 1969

By Alex C. Smith, Thomas A. Gray, Lynn M. Crayne, Michael A. Trevits, Phil Glogowski

Mine fires constitute one of the greatest threats to the health and safety of those working in the underground environment and each event has the potential for disastrous consequences. Of the major mine fires and thermal events that have occurred in the United States in the last 6 years, it is estimated that remotely installed seals could have been used in 63% of the events to control fire growth or to aid in fire suppression work. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is conducting full-scale tests at the NIOSH Lake Lynn Experimental Mine to evaluate and improve remote mine seal construction technology. The main focus of this work is to develop reliable technology that will completely close the mine opening from floor-to-roof and rib-to-rib. This paper presents the results of remote seal installations using grout-based materials.

This Bureau of Mines publication contains five papers pertaining to the effective grounding of mine power systems, as follows: Ground-check monitor types and safety characteristics; ground wire monitors for surface coal mines; ground bed design and measurement; electrical ground rod corrosion; and a continuous ground bed resistance monitor.

Jan 1, 1979

By R. Marshall

Electrical trailing cable handling techniques and practices used in metal and non-metal surface mines were investigated by obtaining information through actual visits to the mine properties located in a variety of geological areas and climatic conditions. An analysis was made of all accidents related to cable handling which are cataloged by HSAC* for the period from 1971, through June 1980. Information was also collected from mine operators concerning near accidents and non-reported accidents. The results of this investigation were presented to the U.S. Bureau of Mines in an effort to outline recommended practices for cable handling in surface mines and to recommend additions and/or changes in the present regulations now being enforced by MSHA** field inspectors. These recommendations are also intended to assist the U.S. Bureau of Mines in evaluating the need for assisting the mine operators in the areas of training and distribution of information related to material handling of trailing cable. * Health Safety Analysis Center ** Mine Safety & Health Administration

Jan 1, 1980