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By J. M. Zhuang

Lignosulfonates, by-products of the sulfite pulping process, have been utilized in a process [1, 2] to treat acidic rock drainage (ARD). This process is referred to as the LignorTM process. In the present study, lignosulfonates were found to protect lime from developing an external surface coating, and hence to favor its dissociation. Further, the addition of lignosulfonates to ARD solutions increased the clotting and settling rate of the formed sludge. The capability of lignosulfonates to form stable metal-lignin complexes makes them very useful in retaining metal ions and thus improving the long term stability of the sludge against leaching. The LignorTM process involves metal chelation with lignosulfonates, ARD neutralization by lime to about pH 7, pH adjustment with caustic soda to 9.4 ? 9.6, air oxidation to lower the pH to a desired level, and addition of a minimum amount of FeCl3 for further removal of dissolved metals. The LignorTM process removes all concerned metals (especially Al and Mn) from the ARD of the Britannia Mine (located at Britannia Beach, British Columbia, Canada) to a level lower than the limits of the BC Regulations. Compared with the high density sludge (HDS) process, the LignorTM process has many advantages, such as considerable savings in lime consumption, greatly reduced sludge volume, and improved sludge stability.

Jan 1, 2003

By Ulrich Kerney

In 1996, bath smelting technology for lead recovery from concentrates and secondary materials was introduced in Nordenham to replace the common sinter plant/shaft furnace operation. Since start-up, a continuous improvement of equipment and operation lead to a steady increase of capacity and plant availability. The decision to skip the reduction stage for slag treatment now allows the treatment of 200000 t/a feed materials with a secondary fraction of up to 70 %. The main feed source for the furnace is automotive battery recycling, which offers oxide paste and metallics to be molten under oxidizing conditions in the lance fired furnace. The lead bullion is transferred to the refinery, where copper, silver and other impurities are removed. Silver is recovered as doré quality. All loopings are recycled to the BSF. Inert feed material is collected in a so-called lead concentrate of metallurgical origin, the primary slag, which is sold. It is rather a valuable feed material for further processing than a slag The off-gas is cooled in a flux-flow system, entering then an electrostatic dust precipitator. Having passed a further washing and cooling system, SO2 is oxidized and collected and sold as concentrated sulphuric acid. The presentation will cover a review of the start-up phase, the development of significant production parameters over the last years and actual production routes and figures. A comparison of environmental data between new and old applied technology is made.

Jan 1, 2006

By K. S. Raja, M. Misra, S. K. Mohapatra

"Ordered arrays of TiO2 nanotubular photocatalysts were prepared by a simple anodization process. Band gap states of the TiO2 were altered by controlling the anodization electrolyte composition and thermal annealing conditions that resulted in enhanced photo activity. These nanotubes were used for reducing CO2 to methanol either by photochemical or photo electrochemical routes. Pd nano-particle loaded TiO2 nanotubes were employed for photochemical reduction of CO2 to methanol that showed a conversion rate of 12 x 10-3 mol m- 2h-1. Carbon modified TiO2-xCx type nanotubes were used as photo anode and Ti as cathode for photo electrochemical reduction of CO2. The potential of Ti cathode was maintained at -0.5 V SCE. The formation rate of methanol was determined as 13 x 10-3 mol.m-2h-1.1. IntroductionGlobal warming due to emission of carbon dioxide is a serious environmental concern. The atmospheric concentration of CO2 is about 384 ppm by volume and about 3 x 1012 tonnes by weight. Burning of fossil fuels and deforestation are the leading causes for increase in the anthropogenic CO2. More than 32 x 109 tonnes of CO2 are released per year (based on 2006 data) worldwide from the fossil fuel. Pumping CO2 from the fossil fuel power plants into deep ocean basin is one of the most discussed disposal options. The other potential option is converting this green house gas into valuable fuels.Carbon dioxide feed stock can be converted into fuels of solid, liquid or gas phase by chemical, electrolytic, photocatalytic and photo-electrocatalytic methods. Reduction of CO2 to fuel form of any phase requires energy. The reduction process should be energy efficient so that we do not spend more energy and emit more (indirect) CO2 in the process of converting CO2. From this point of view, conversion processes occurring at room temperature look attractive.Electrolytic conversion of CO2 into various forms such as methane1, ethane2, ethylene3, methanol4,5, ethanol6, n-propanol, formic acid7, and formaldehyde has been widely reported. The standard equilibrium potential (at pH: 0) for reduction of CO2 to methanol is 0.14 VSHE and to methane is 0.2 VSHE which is thermodynamically more favorable than hydrogen reduction. However, the gas phase reduction is kinetically complex requiring effective electrocatalyst. The major issues with electrolytic conversion of CO2 to useful products are:"

Jan 1, 2010

By K. Fukushima, K. Baba, H. Kurokawa, M. Yamagiwa

"The Toyo smelter has expanded its anode production capacity from 126,500 to 239,000 t/year by introducing technical oxygen into blast air for flash and converter furnaces and improving smelting facilities. Significant efforts were made in the expansion not to increase the number of workers, which mean development of some automation systems for the copper converters and anode casting wheel. The efforts have resulted in the above-mentioned increase in productivity and a saving of production cost as well as a decrease in the number of workers for the anode casting operation.IntroductionThe Toyo smelter has been performing a highly stable and pollution free operation since its commencement in 1971 (1). Its distinctive features are the on-line control by process computer (2) and the high productivity without trouble. But owing to the so-called oil crisis in 1979, we were faced with a sharp increase in production cost. To decrease the production cost, some measures for saving of energy were planned and carried out, such as conversion from oil to coal in a flash furnace (3), the heat recovery from converter slag and the introduction of technical oxygen in blast air with the intention of energy saving as much as possible.The first increase in production capacity and some savings of production cost were attained in 1982 by the introduction of technical oxygen in blast air for the flash furnace without major modification of the furnace as shown in Table I. The capacity of an oxygen plant is 7,800 Nm3/H as 90% O2 . Part of oxygen from the plant is also supplied to tuyeres of copper converters through an oxygen holding tank with a volume of 830 m3 at 7 kg/cm2-G."

Jan 1, 1989

By Y. Sako, E. Nomura, K. Muraguchi, K. Shibata

In 1998, Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co., Ltd. (MMS) produced 70,000 tonnes of lead, 231,000 tonnes of zinc and 214,000 tonnes of copper. MESCO, Inc. has been in charge of the automation and mechanization of smelting facilities promoted by MMS as well as the construction of facilities for chemical production and electronics materials plants, by which MESCO has contributed to the development of MMS. Initially, MESCO developed a casting machine for refined lead in the early 1960's, and thereafter, it developed a casting machine for refined zinc, a stripping machine for zinc tankhouses and energy saving facilities. In the field of copper smelting, it has also developed automation and mechanization facilities.

Jan 1, 2000

By M. Ide, K. Takemura, S. Taenaka, K. Shinzawa

"The laser characteristic is strongry dependent upon the stoichometry of forsterite (Mg2Si04) and YSO (Y2Si05) single crystals, because of change in the valency and occupied sites of doped Cr in the lattice so that mole ratios of Mg0/Si02 and Y203/Si02 in the above single crystals must be precisely analyzed. In this study ICP-AES was applied for analyzing the mole ratios. Emission intensities corresponding to Si and Mg or Si and Y were measured at the same time with internal standard method. Preparation of sample solutions, measurement conditions of ICP-AES and interferences by coexisting components were discussed, resulting in excellently precise detennination of stoichometry of the above single crystals.IntroductionIn conventional stoichiometric analysis of single crystals, the stoichiometry is detennined by analyzing each component separately with titrimetry and gravimetry techniques. On the other hand, by stoichiometric analyses using ICP-AES, emission intensities corresponding to components are measured at the same time with internal standard method. Consequently erros caused by variation of analytical condition are canceled out.Cr-doped Mg2Si04 and Y2Si05 syngle crystals are known as laser materials. The change of valency and occupied sites of doped Cr affect the characteristic of single crystal as aleser materials. The change of state of doped Cr.Stoichometric composition of Mg2Si04 is constructed by 2mole of MgO and 1mole of Si02, and Y2Si05 is constructed by 1mole of Y203 and 1mole of Si02. In this study, required analytical precision in component mole ratio is within an error of 0.0010 for Mg2Si04 (CV=0.05wt%), and within an error of 0.0030 for Y2Si05 (CV=0.05wt%) (Table I )."

Jan 1, 1998

By Shadia J. Ikhmayies

"Nanocrystalline fluorine doped tin oxide (Sn02:F) thin films were produced by the spray pyrolysis technique (SP) on glass substrates at a substrate temperature T, = 450 ° C. The hydrated stannous chloride (SnClz.2H20) was used as a precursor and ammonium fluoride (NH4F) and hydrofluoric acid (HF) were used as the doping compounds. A comparison between the compositional, morphological and optical properties of the films obtained by using the two doping compounds was performed by using scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations, energy dispersive spectroscopy by X-rays (EDAX) and transmittance measurements. It is found that the films prepared by using HF have larger grain size, and higher fluorine content than the films prepared by using ~- In addition these films have higher transmittance and higher direct optical bandgap energy. These results are interesting for the use of Sn02:F as a forecontact in CdS/CdTe solar cells.IntroductionTin dioxide is an n-type, wide bandgap semiconductor (about 3.5 eV) and in the form of thin films, it is a transparent conducting material, characterized by high optical transmission (80- 90%) [l]. Sn02:F is the most widely used transparent-conducting oxide material. The transparent-conducting thin films of this oxide are used as electrodes in a variety of optoelectronic devices, as heat mirror coatings in 'smart windows' for buildings, in automobile and airplane windshields, in incandescent light bulbs, in flat-plate and concentrating solar collectors. Tin oxide and zinc oxide, in thin film configuration are technologically important materials because of their applications in photovoltaic cells [2].Among various dopants for Sn02, fluorine is often preferred, because fluorine doping results in films with high transparency and good conductivity [3]. By exploring the literatures, it was found that different sources of fluorine were used to produce Sn02:F thin fihns, among which are ammonium fluoride (NH4F) and hydrofluoric acid (HF) are the most used. Some researchers used~ [2, 4-7] and others used HF [3, 6-8] for doping Sn02 films. Gordillo et al.[7] used both of NH4F and HF and showed that the resistivity of thin films obtained by using HF was lower than that of similar films obtained by using NH4F by a factor of 2.2. They also found that the films obtained by using HF have more random orientations."

Jan 1, 2013

By Björn Saxen

Outotec atmospheric Direct Leaching has so far been implemented for zinc production capacities of around 100,000 t/a. Lately, there has been growing interest for small scale direct leaching plants, producing circa 30,000 t/a of Zn. Such small leaching plants can provide extra front-end capacity in existing roaster-based plants and enable treatment of feed materials not suitable for roasting. In small scale plants the proven OKTOP® 9000 Direct Leaching reactors are not readily applicable, due the large size. For smaller installations a modular approach is proposed providing multiple advantages, such as reducing the construction time and amount of the site work required causing less disturbance to regular plant operation with reduced cost. In this paper, we present advantages that can be achieved by using modular OKTOP®C reactors and discuss also process design when connecting a small scale direct leaching process to an existing zinc plant. Also benefits of direct leaching expansion are presented.

By Mariola Saternus

The quality of the liquid metal has the biggest influence on the quality of the final products. In the metallurgical industry, and especially in aluminium production the refining process is the important technological stage. Today the most popular are refining reactors with impellers like URO ? 200, which can generate small gas bubbles. A rotary impeller also makes the metal bath to be stirred well. There are two basic hydrodynamic parameters: the flow rate of refining gas and the mixing of refining gas (impeller rotation) that influence metal stirring and generating small gas bubbles. The paper presents the influence of the flow rate of refining gas on the hydrogen removal process from aluminium (final hydrogen concentration), taking into consideration the refining process of AlSi7Mg alloy and using URO - 200. The mathematical model of this process is also presented. The equation needed for calculation of the final hydrogen concentration as a function of the equivalent bubble diameter is shown. Basing on this equation the calculations of bubble diameter and optimal refining time are done. This paper presents the physical model (the water one) of aluminium refining process and the gas dispersion taking into account the fact that the gas flow rate is changing from 2,5 to 17,5 l/min and the impeller speed is changing from 0 to 400 rpm. Schemes of gas dispersion in liquid metal in comparison with the model data are shown and the optimal values of the gas flow rate and the impeller speed are chosen.

Jan 1, 2006

By W. Y. Kim, K. H. Song, K. Nakata

"The present study was carried out to evaluate the mechanical properties of friction stir welded Inconel 600/SS 400 lap joints. In this process, friction stir welding (FSW) was performed at a tool rotation speed of 200 rpm and welding speed of 100 mm1min, and argon gas was utilized to prevent surface oxidation during the welding. Application of FSW notably decreases the grain size of Inconel 600 alloy from 20 µm in the base material to 8 ~ in the stir zone. However, the grain size of SS 400 in the weld zone was slightly coarsened, when compared to the base material. Also, the hooking in the advancing side and the intermetal1ic compounds (M7C3) in the weld interface between Incone1 600 and SS 400 were well formed. These intermetallic compounds and hooking were effective to increase in mechanical properties such as tensile and peel strengths.IntroductionFriction stir welding (FSW), applicable welding process at solid state, has several advantages in defect suppression such as blow hole, segregation and cracking which mainly occurs in fusion welding [1, 2]. Notable grain refinement in the stir zone due to FSW can expect the outstanding increase in mechanical properties of the welds. In constructing the chemical and power plants, Ni base superal10ys have been used in many parts, moreover, fusion welding as construct method, such as gas tungsten arc welding, electron beam welding and laser welding, has been mainly used [3-5]. However, fusion welding has a limit in an increase in chemical and mechanical properties in the welds. Lately, Ni base superalloys to which FSW applied have been reported with notable enhancement in mechanical properties, which resulted from refined grains in the welds [6-10]. These researches showed the possibility in applying the FSW, directly."

Jan 1, 2012

By Kun Wang, Xinhui Li, Huaqing Xie, Qingbo Yu, Qin Qin

"Three typical model compounds of bio-oil (ethanol, acetone and phenol) were studied in the steam reforming process for hydrogen production. In the thermodynamic analysis, the three componds showed the similar trends. The hydrogen yields increased with the increase of steam/carbon (S/C) ratios, and the temperatures of the maximum hydrogen yields moved afterward to low temperature zone. However, the hydrogen contents were just about 70%. For improving hydrogen yield, a new system for steam reforming of bio-oil with site CO2 capture was put forward. This system required the catalst with the larger granularity having greater mechanical strength and higher abrasion resistance. So, six Ni-base catalysts loaded on Al2O3 particles prepared were used and among them, Mg-Ni/Co catalyst showed the best catalytic performance. For the simulated bio-oil (the mixture of the compounds), the hydrogen yield can attain 63% with Mg-Ni/Co catalyst with the good stability and regeneration ability.IntroductionCurrently the interest in the use of hydrogen as a clean energy carrier is increasing, and the main way for producing hydrogen is steam reforming of fossil fuels, containing steam reforming of nature gas, naphtha and coal. But this way caused substantial amounts of CO2 emitted, and these sources of hydrogen which are non-renewable energy will eventually be used up [1, 2]. As a kind of renewable energy, biomass is recognized as an attractive alternative to fossil fuels, because of its neutral CO2 emissions [3]. There are mainly two thermochemical processes using biomass to produce hydrogen, gasification and flash pyrolysis followed by steam reforming (SR) of the biooil produced in the flash pryolysis process [4]. The latter was known as one of the most promising and economically viable methods for hydrogen production [5]. In the last decades, the biomass flash pyrolysis technology was adequately developed and fairly mature [6]. But the steam reforming of bio-oil is still at the research stage and yet has been leading to more and more concerns by the researchers. In their research, the catalysts were widely studied and yet mainly were powdery[7-10], and the reactors manily were fixed bed reactors[11-13], readly causing the carbon deposition and the catalyst deactivation, against the continuous running. In this paper, a new systerm was put forward and could realize continuous production of hydrogen, yet needed catalysts with the larger granularity having greater mechanical strength and higher abrasion resistance, as well as powdery CO2 sorbents which mainly calcium oxide based ones.In this paper, the thermodynamic analysis of the steam reforming processes of three typical bio-oil model compounds (ethanol, acetone, phenol) was performed, and the effect of S/C ratio and temperature on the hydrogen yield and the compositions of gaseous products were investigated. Then, a new systerm for steam reforming of bio-oil with site CO2 capture was put forward, and the catalysts with a certain granularity were prepared and studied."

Jan 1, 2014

By Liang Li

Thermodynamic analysis and experiments were conducted in order to verify the feasibility of preparing crude titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) via the carbochlorination of low-grade titanium slag in molten salt. Titanium slag, assaying 74.6 wt% TiO2 with high calcium and magnesium oxide impurities, was treated by an optimized carbochlorination process in NaCl molten salt. These impurities in the titanium slag were chloridized simultaneously, and chlorination products FeCl2, MnCl2, MgCl2, CaCl2 and CrCl3 were collected in the furnace slag. XRD and SEM/ EDS analysis of residue shown that SiO2 and Al2O3 in titanium slag were difficult to chlorinate completely. Theoretical calculations and industrial-scale experimental studies reveal the content of TiCl4 in the products was more than 98.8 wt% and thus proved the feasibility of utilizing low-grade titanium slag for TiCl4 preparation by molten salt chlorination technology.

By M. K. Patel, K. A. Pericleous, M. Molaei

"The future trading of carbon credits and increased financial cost necessitates substantial cuts in incidental C02 emissions in the production of metals (iron, steel, aluminum, zinc, lead). Although greener methods of production are being developed, in the short term the use of point-source C02 extraction using existing technology remains attractive. Accelerated natural carbonation, in a fluidized bed is a feasible technological route investigated in this research. CFD modelling has been used to study the efficiency of C02 capture in a fluidized bed reactor containing a CaO solid sorbent. A Lagrangian/Eulerian scheme describes describe CaO particle trajectories and exchange of mass, momentum and energy with the carrier gas, with a typical off-gas composition. Different reactor geometries are considered (with uniform, stepped and gradually expanding cross-section), to maximize conversion for a given particle loading and size distribution (100-200 microns). Removal efficiencies of up to 80% are demonstrated, making this a viable process.IntroductionBased on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports, the major cause of climate change and global warming is due to a high level of C02 concentration in the atmosphere resulting from fossil fuel combustion, particularly in coal-fired power plants [1]. Carbon capture and storage is therefore the most important action proposed to reduce C02 from combustion flue gases. In this process, carbon dioxide is captured and may then be regenerated as pure C02 and conducted to a permanent storage, or simply stored as a solid carbonate [2]. Capture and storage of C02 has an economic penalty and the main cost of this penalty is associated with the capture plant. Capturing C02 with a lime-based solid sorbent (CaO) is a very promising technique, due to the low cost and the wide availability of the reactant. In this process, the CaO reacts with C02 based on the following reaction in a reactor called a Carbonator:"

Jan 1, 2012

By K. W. Cathrine Solem

Filtration of liquid aluminium is widely used in the industry for the removal of inclusions, and Ceramic Foam Filters (CFFs) are often the filtration media of choice. It is known that PH3 (phosphine) can be released from used phosphate bonded CFFs when in contact with water. Additionally, there is a need of an improved understanding of the thermal stability and the chemical reactivity of these types of filters, as there is limited information available in the public domain. In the present preliminary study, three CFFs, i.e. Substrate 1–3, with varying AlPO4 (aluminium phosphate) content were studied under controlled conditions. Samples of the substrates, as produced and in contact with 5N pure aluminium, were heat-treated in a vacuum induction furnace at 850 °C and 1300 °C, as well as thermally studied at 850 °C using a Differential Scanning Colorimeter connected to a Thermogravimetric Analyser (DSC-TG). All tests were performed under an inert atmosphere of argon (Ar). Mass changes of ∼0.001 % were registered for the pure substrates, and 0.003-0.10 % when in contact with aluminium. In the latter case, diffusion of P (phosphorous) from the bulk of the substrate to the interface was established to have taken place. A colour change, from white to orange/brown, was also observed at the interface, which is a clear sign that a chemical reaction has taken place. As a result, the thermal stability of the substrates can be questioned under present conditions.

By E. V. Verhoej

The proposed EU directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment promotes the substitution of lead in consumer electronics to reduce emissions from lead in the end of life phase. In this paper, the consequences of substituting lead in solders is assessed using the Eco-Indicator-99 method for the examples. The base metal production system is considered as an interconnected network modeled dynamically in Simulink 4 and Matlab 6 (Mathworks Inc 2000), where the recovery and production of metal components of the assessed product partially overlap. This approach requires global modeling of metal production processes and mass balances and resulting allocation choices. It also reveals the susceptibility of LCA scores to different choices in the modeling and data availability and uncertainty. Besides the comparison between lead-free and lead-containing solders, other side effects are revealed. Lead is carrier material for the recycling and production of many co-elements in the interconnected production and recovery system. Substitution may have adverse effects such as temporary shortages of other connected metals that are often not considered in normal LCA assessments, thus leading to erroneous results. The suggested approach provides directions for including these extemal effects and for further assessment of the environmental effects of substituting lead. This paper shows that in order to assess the environmental aspects of metallurgy, dynamic modeling of the total system is required based on the fundamental thermodynamics in each metallurgical reactor, the basis of this dynamic model. With this the true environmental impact of metallurgy can be explained. In the case of lead free solder, it is shown that the mining of substitutes has a very much larger impact.

Jan 1, 2003

By Dinesh P. Amalnerkar, Nagegownivari Munirathnam, Tirthalli Prakash, Katia Vutova, Vania Vassileva, Veliko Donchev

"A time-dependent model for electron beam melting and refining (EBMR) of different metals and alloys is developed. The model is 3D axi-symmetrical and an adapted numerical scheme of Pismen-Rekftord type is applied. The developed computer program computes the thermal fields in the metal ingots during EBMR process as well as the dynamics of the thermal streams and the geometry of the molten metal pools. Calculated results for different regimes of EBMR of titanium are obtained and discussed in the paper. Experiments are performed and impurities' concentration data are presented. Simulation results are compared with experimental data and are used for optimization of the EBMR process in the case of Ti.IntroductionElectron beam melting and refining (EBMR) has an important role in the special electrometallurgy[ 1-6] and it is approved for obtaining of pure titanium [7]. EBMR of metals and alloys is being recognized as a competitive and even the single method for obtaining new materials for all areas of human activity.The principal scheme of the EBMR drip process is shown in Fig.1. A thin layer of molten metal is formed on the front part of the feeding rod during the e-beam processing and generated droplets fall into the molten pool in the crucible where the ingot is formed. The refining is mainly realized at the boundary liquid metal - vacuum. There are three zones in EBMR (Fig.1) - on the front part of the feeding rod (zone I in Fig.1 ), on the surface of the generated droplets (zone II in Fig.1) and the surface of the molten pool in the water-cooled copper crucible (zone III in Fig.1)."

Jan 1, 2013

By A. Haxhiaj, Mitovica, E. Haxhiaj

"The paper discusses problems encountered during the release and possibility of using the thermal gas quantity Mathematical models are used to calculate the positive thermal effects of the gases and losses of thermal quantity with gases in the melting process of electric furnaces. The paper discusses in details the percentages of CO, CO2, H2S, O2 and the humidity in gases and their impact on the technological process in electrical furnaces in Drenas. The paper also confers the quantity and temperature of gases, the transfer of thermal quantity and dust with gases in the environment. The paper presents the percentage of humidity in the load which is added in electric furnace for melting and its impact on thermal and environmental balance in the technological process of melting in electric furnaces. Key words: Furnace, load, temperature, humidity, gases.IntroductionNickel easily reacts with gases in the atmosphere of the furnace in which the nickel ore is processed. Such reactions can explain challenges in producing high quality nickel. Reductive atmosphere with the surrounding gases composed of sulphurous anhydrite has harmful effects on the production of nickel. This is mainly due to solubility of hydrogen as well as nickel oxide in the melted metal. Nickel reacts with carbon monoxide and forms carbide of nickel and nickel oxide which dissolve in the melted metal. Carbon monoxide also dissolves in the melted metal. The presence of carbon dioxide and water vapor in the atmosphere of the furnace impact the decrease of acidity in reductive atmosphere of the furnace. The carbon dioxide reacts with nickel and forms nickel oxide and carbon monoxide. Water vapor reacts with nickel and forms hydrogen and nickel oxide that have negative impact on the structure of nickel and its alloys. In this paper the analytical and experimental analyses are proposed that lead to minimization of the negative effects of gasses and humidity in the melting process. As the practical example, the electrical furnace in Drenas is analyzed.1. The Load and Its CompositionThe basic function of the rotational furnace is drying and reductive roasting of the ore which directly is loaded into the electrical furnace for melting. It is important to mention that the degree of roasting and pre-reduction of iron-nickel oxides is reached if the roasting process of the load in the rotational furnace is done at the temperature of 900°C to 1000°C, with the reductive atmosphere in the furnace and with minimal amount of oxygen in the processing gas. The optimal process of roasting and pre-reduction of the load in its mass is around 13 wt%. With the removal of the humidity and the sterile pare of the ore, with the positive impacts in utilization of the thermal and electrical energy in the melting process in electrical furnaces."

Jan 1, 2013

By E. V. Verhoef

The proposed EU directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment promotes the substitution of lead in consumer electronics to reduce emissions from lead in the end of life phase. In this paper, the consequences of substituting lead in solders is assessed using the Eco-lndicator-99 method for the examples. The base metal production system is considered as an interconnected network modeled dynamically in Simulink 4 and Matlab 6 (Mathworks Inc 2000), where the recovery and production of metal components of the assessed product partially overlap. This approach requires global modeling of metal production processes and mass balances and resulting allocation choices. It also reveals the susceptibility of LeA scores to different choices in the modeling and data availability and uncertainty. Besides the comparison between lead-free and lead-containing solders, other side effects are revealed. Lead is carrier material for the recycling and production of many co-elements in the interconnected production and recovery system. Substitution may have adverse effects such as temporary shortages of other connected metals that are often not considered in normal LeA assessments, thus leading to erroneous results. The suggested approach provides directions for including these external effects and for further assessment of the environmental effects of substituting lead. This paper shows that in order to assess the environmental aspects of metallurgy, dynamic modeling of the total system is required based on the fundamental thermodynamics in each metallurgical reactor, the basis of this dynamic model. With this the true environmental impact of metallurgy can be explained. In the case of lead free solder, it is shown that the mining of substitutes has a very much larger impact.

Jan 1, 2003

By Junfu Chen, Jiann-Yang Hwang, Yong Zhou, Lijun Lu, Likun Lia, Jixiong Liu

The sheet-like NiS-ZnS heterostructured composites were prepared by the microwave hydrothermal. The fabrication of the heterojunctions broadened the range of light response of ZnS. The photoexcited electrons of ZnS migrated to the redox potential of NiS/Ni2S under visible light irradiation, which can facilitate the effective separation of photogenerated electrons and holes in space. The visible photocatalytic activity towards hydrogen production for NiS/ZnS nanosheet heterostructed composites without co-catalyst achieved 0.28 mmol h–1, and the quantum efficiency was up to 18.6% under the wavelength with 420 nm visible light irradiation.

Jan 1, 2015

By Ruiling DU, Xiao YUAN, Keng Wu, Daan XU, Changyao CHAO

To utilize low grade coals to produce high quality semi-coke which can be used in blast furnaces, the pyrolysis of low grade coals was studied in this paper. According to the characteristics of coal pyrolysis process, the temperature range was divided into three parts. The interfacial chemical reaction model, random pore model and the internal diffusion model with the shrinking volume of resultant were established to describe the different ranges of pyrolysis process respectively. The results showed that the experimental data was fitted well, and all the correlation coefficients (r2) exceeded 0.97. Finally, the kinetic parameters for each temperature range have been calculated, which laid a necessary foundation for the simulation and expanded production.

Jan 1, 2016