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By BUREAU OF MINES

In 1948 the United States became a net importer of oil. Coupled with an unpre- cedented domestic production of 5,900,000 barrels daily, imports approximating 500,000 barrels made available a total supply of 6,400,000 barrels a day. Thus, by herculean effort, the oil industry was able to meet an extraordinary demand at home and, in addition, to ship abroad almost 400,00 barrels daily of petroleum and products. The country's oil position now differs greatly from that prevailing at the be- ginning of World War II. Then, actual oil production averaged about 4 million bar- rels a day, and productive capacity probably was greater than 5 million barrels a day. As the demand of the military and industrial machine grew with the rising tempo of the drive toward victory, the United States not only met its own needs but pro- duced about two-thirds of the total oil requirements of the Allied Nations, excluding Russia. As a people, we can be deeply grateful that the Nation's petroleum resources were adequate and sufficiently developed to support such a tremendous effort. Even in those critical hours when immediate needs were the paramount issues, a prudent Congress paused to contemplate the importance of an assured long-term supply of liquid fuels. From these deliberations came the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act of 1944, which authorized research and development work on new sources of oil coal, oil shale, and agricultural and forestry products. ce World War II, a civilian demand for 6 million barrels of petroleum prod- ucts has become the order of the day every day. By drilling as many as 39,000 new wells a year, the production rate has been increased enough to meet domestic require- ments by a bare margin. Some imports were necessary, however, to fill both domestic and foreign demands, and these doubtless will increase. Is this policy of exploration within the United States and the development of oil in foreign countries adequate insurance for the fulfillment of our future national needs? This question has two aspects one purely civilian and economic in character and the other significant from the standpoint of our national defense. There are now approximately 4,000 producing oil fields in this country. At first thought, it would appear that production could decline in a considerable number of these fields without materially affecting the over-all daily output. However, 48 percent of the oil comes from only 111 major fields which contain 50 percent of the total proved domestic reserves. It is apparent, then, that the flow from large fields - having proved reserves of 100 million barrels or more each must be sustained if daily production is to be kept at the present levels. Essentially, this means that new major fields must be discovered about as rapidly or perhaps more rapidly than the older ones lose productive capacity. From 1940 through 1947, only eight major fields with estimated reserves of more than 100 million barrels each, were discovered and proved - an average of one such field a year. The total estimated reserve of these eight fields was less than 1 year's supply at the present rate of use. As drilling continues, some existing fields ultimately will prove reserves larger than those now known. Without a pronounced increase in the num- ber of major discoveries, however, the prospects for increasing our present productive level are not encouraging. Any gap that appears between domestic productive capacity and demand could be filled with supplies from proved oil resources abroad. Assuming cheap pipe-line and tanker transportation to the United States, freedom from exorbitant taxes and charges

Jan 1, 1949

By Van H. Manning

"Under the organic act establishing it, the Bureau of Mines is authorized to conduct investigations designed to improve health and safety conditions in the mineral industry and to promote efficient development and utilization of our mineral resources. The field of the Bureau's activity, therefore, begins with the commercial development of mineral deposits and ends with the production and utilization of the final marketable product.In order to serve more efficiently the various sections of the country, the Bureau has established, in addition to its main offices at Washington, D. C., eleven field experiment stations, three field offices and several mine rescue cars and mina rescue stations. These field branches are so distributed as to cover most of the mining districts of this country, including Alaska. The field service in general deals with specific experimental problems, cooperative work with non-governmental institutions, and mina rescue work, while the Washington office is the administrative head and is responsible for the distribution of general information, the chiefs of the technical and administrative divisions of the Bureau being stationed there.The Bureau is prohibited by law from doing work exclusively for the benefit of any private company or individual. Generally speaking, the Bureau does no assaying, ore testing, or similar service work for the benefit of private companies or individuals. In response to requests for work of this sort a list of assay and ore testing laboratories is supplied. In referring inquiries to com-mercial laboratories or consulting engineers, care is taken to mention several names so as to avoid designating any one establishment or engineer."

Apr 1, 1920

By R. G. Gürtunca

The future of the United States (US) mining industry will be affected greatly by recent coal mining disasters. These have resulted in new legislation which will have an impact on mining economic costs as well safety and health of miners. This paper discusses the changes that new legislation and regulations are making to the industry and current research that is producing technologies to make mining safer and will likely impact the future of mining.

Jan 1, 2009

By James A. Browning

Following an unsuccessful attempt earlier in the program to develop and market a drill channelling machine, we have designed and tested a new continuous channelling method which reduces operating sound levels to below 100 db. This new method relies on a small diameter oxygen-enriched burner to produce narrow channels. Sound intensities are reduced substantially compared to conventional channel widths. They are further reduced by a water spray directed immediately above the flame. Baffles placed along the top of the channel will reduce sound levels to below 90 db. Cutting rates are greater than those of existing channelling burners with costs per unit of channel area substantially reduced for those cases where oxygen costs are reasonable.

Jan 1, 1981

By G. Nuñez, M. A. Pathak, C. F. Stanley

"A 1986 report by the U.S. National Committee on Blomechanlcs (1) describes lung disease as a major national health problem. The report cites three areas that would benefit from a better understanding of the vibratory patterns of the lung. These areas are outlined below.1. In cases of respiratory distress, pressure driven artificial respirators are used. A new technique using high frequency respiration is quite promising, but the pressure distribution in the lung as a function of frequency is not yet known. At these frequencies of 1 to 60 Hz, the lung expands asynchronously (2) and a better understanding of these expansion nonunlformltles could provide valuable Information about the mechanics of high frequency ventilation.2. Listening to the sounds In the lung can yield valuable Information about the state of the lung. To improve the technique, a better understanding of how acoustic waves propagate through the lung is needed.3. The response of the lung as It Is subjected to acoustic excitation, dynamic loading or shock waves is not well understood. A better knowledge of these responees can lead to improved treatment for patients subjected to either explosive pressure waves or car crashes.4. Researchers are measuring the acoustic Impedance of the Iung to detect early states of dysfunction. Sneckenberger and Whitmoyer (3) have reported Impedances obtained at acoustic frequencies up to about 6000 Hz. However, It la not certain which parts of the lung are responding to the acoustic excitation.To Investigate the vibratory characteristics of the lung, excised rat lungs were excited via the trachea with acoustic waves at frequencies up to 6000 Hz. Thie paper describes an Instrumentation system, utlllzlng time-averaged holographic Interferometry, to detect and quantify the response of the lung surface to the acoustic excitation."

Jan 1, 1989

By L. C. IlsLey

The last previous Bureau of Mines publication relative to details of permissible methane detectors (Bulletin 331, published in 1930) describes detectors of four different types, namely flame, combustion, catalytic, and a combination Weatstone-bridge and catalytic type in which catalytic action at the surface of a platinum filament when in methane causes a change in the temperature and resistance of the filament, thus unbalancing the bridge circuit and giving a reading proportional to the methane concentration. Three detractors of the latter type have been approved since 1930. A brief description of each follows: U. C. C. Detector Approval No. 902, covering the U. C. C. indicating detector, as described in Bulletin 331, was extended. January 27, 1930, to cover important changes in design that permit checking the calibration of the detector at any time whether in gas or fresh air. Essential features of the detector are shown in figure 1.

Jan 1, 1937

By Lloyd A. Morley, Robert Stefanko

1. Anonymous (Berggewerkshaftliche Versuchsstrecke), "75 Jahre Berggewerkshaftliche Versuchsstrecke, 1894-1969," 1969. 2. Anonymous, British Symposium on Flameproofing and Intrinsic Safety, IEEE Conf. Report Series No. 3, 1962. 3. Anonymous (Ministry of Fuel and Power), "A Review of Electrical Research and Testing with Regard to Flame-Proof Enclosure and Intrinsic Safety of Electrical Apparatus and Circuits," 1943. 4. Australian Standard Specification, ASC-98, "Electrical Equipment for Explosive Atmospheres," 1970. 5. Belgium Standard Specification, Norme NBM 286, "concernant la protection par enveloppe antideflagrante," 1965. 6. Bossert, J.A., "Approval for Electrical Equipment for Hazard Locations," paper PCI 66-33, IEEE 16th Annual Petrol. and Chem. Ind. Conf., L. A., California, Sept. 15-17, 1969. 7. Bossert, J.A., "Intrinsic Safety in Canada," Electrical Safety Practices, ISA Monogram, vn. 112, 1969. ,8. British Standards, BS229, "Flameproof Enclosure of Electrical Apparatus," 1957. 9. British Standards, BS4683 Part 1, "Classification of Maximum Surface Temperatures," 1971. 10. British Standards, BS4683 Part 2, "The Construction and Testing of Flameproof Enclosures of Electrical Apparatus," 1971. 11. Brown, G.R., and Silver, S., "An Explosion Hazard Due to Inflam¬mation of Aluminum Particles in Flat Flanges of Flameproof Enclosures," CEAL No. 197, Canadian Explosive Atmospheres Labor¬atory, 1969. 12. Campbell, J.D., and Chudleigh, J.P., "Problems Encountered in Designing Electrical Systems for Hazardous Areas," paper PCI-69¬31, IEEE 16th Annual Petrol. and Chem. Ind. Conf., L. A., California, Sept. 15-17, 1969. 13. Canadian Standards Association, C22.2 No. 30, "Explosion-Proof Enclosures for Use in Class I Hazardous Locations." 14. Dainty, E.D., and Brown, G.R., "Explosion Gas Temperatures at the Entrance to Flanges of Enclosures Containing 8.5% Methane-Air Mixtures," CEAL No. 196, 1969.

Jan 1, 1974

By K. C. Strebig

The effect of some organic additives in diamond drilling of quartzite was investigated in the laboratory with a drill instrumented to measure the rate of penetration, the thrust, and the torque and to record each as a function of the distance drilled. A statistical plan was followed throughout the investigation, and an equation representing the bit performance was derived from the mathematical theory of reliability. The coefficient of friction in drilling increased with the use of additives, although the wear coefficient decreased. The decrease in wear associated with an increase in energy per unit volume consumed and the increase in penetration rate resulted in a net decrease in the cost per foot of drilling. A hypothesis explaining the effects achieved with the additives is given.

Jan 1, 1971

By B. M. Stewart

Researchers at the U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted a long-term groundwater monitoring and site characterization program at an abandoned 10-ha, acid-producing, copper-gold tailings impoundment in north-central Washington State. The purpose was to investigate contaminant release and transport, and attenuation mechanisms in the tailings, sediments below the tailings, and gravels downgradient of the impoundment. This report summarizes the monitoring results and physical properties of the tailings, the sediments below the tailings, and the groundwater system associated with the tailings. Water samples from the vadose and saturated zones of the impoundment were analyzed for 15 constituents. Concentrations of the same constituents were determined in water samples up to 3 m beneath the impoundment and in the shallow colluvium and deep bedrock at 76, 335, and 550 m downgradient and 168 m upgradient. Constituent concentrations within the tailings are quite variable and are influenced by pH, depth of oxidation, grain-size differential (surface area), hydraulic gradient, groundwater mixing, and the presence of hardpan layers, carbonaceous material, and organic matter. Most of the metal constituents decreased to background or near-background concentrations in the farthest downgradient well.

Jan 1, 2010

By K. D. Luxbacher

Understanding methane emissions in underground coal mines is critical for a safe and productive mine. In addition to reasonable estimation of initial coalbed reservoir parameters, it is also crucial that changes in effective stress due to mining and pore pressure reduction are taken into account due to their effects on porosity and permeability. Primary parameters for estimation of emissions or modeling of the mining environment for this purpose are porosity and permeability which can change dramatically as a result of stress redistribution associated with mining and gas desorption from a large coal volume. These parameters affect the emission rates and ventilation requirements, as well as water inflow into the working environment. Stopping leakage, on the other hand, is a secondary stress dependent factor in estimation of emissions, as convergence of the roof and floor strata, compromising the integrity of the stopping, may result in leakage, making prediction of ventilation requirements difficult. This paper aims to examine the effects of porosity and permeability changes of the coal seam on methane emissions in an underground continuous miner section. The models were developed and executed in a dynamic fashion to simulate an advancing section. Through this process, the changes of effective stress in coal, particularly their change paths, on porosity and permeability were incorporated into the models and methane emissions, concentrations, air requirements, water inflow and possible leakage from the stoppings were investigated using a conventional coalbed methane reservoir model.

Jan 1, 2009

By C. K. Rose

A hydraulic scaling rig was placed in operation at the Bureau of Mines oil-shale mine near Rifle, Colo., in 1953. The rig consists of a self-leveling platform mounted on a hydraulic-powered boom. The boom is mounted on the bed of a diesel truck. The equipment provides a movable work platform from which two men can work in safety and comfort while barring loose rock from the backs and walls of the rooms, pillars, and haulageways. INTRODUCTION As a part of its synthetic liquid fuels program the Bureau of Mines has developed a mine in the richer oil-shale beds of the Green River formation near Rifle, Colo. An important part of the work of the Oil-Shale Mining Branch is investigation of techniques for low-cost mining of oil shale on a commercial basis. It is evident that scaling loose rock from the high backs and walls of the mine represents a portion of the direct mining cost. This paper describes the development of a scaling rig for operation in the upper heading of the mine, which is 39 feet high.

Jan 1, 1954

By G. T. Fisher

The U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted research on calcium ferrite slags to determine the distribution of Pb and minor elements (Ag, Cd, Zn, and Co) between Pb bullion and slag. These fundamental data are required to evaluate nonferrous smelting with calcium ferrite slags as a substitute for conventional iron silicate slags. Determinations were made in 25-cm3-capacity MgO crucibles at 1,250° C for 2 h in a CO-CO2 atmosphere with an O2 potential that would retard the formation of magnetite. Calcium ferrite slag composition variables studied were from 16 to 32 wt pct CaO in 2-pct increments and Si02 ranging from 1 to 5 wt pct in 1-pct increments with equal additions of MgO. For all compositions studied, the retention of Pb in the calcium ferrite slag was less than 1 wt pct, which compares favorably to about 6 wt pct Pb in conventional iron silicate slags used in smelting of Pb concentrates. Minor element distribution was insensitive to changes in slag composition in the range studied. However, slag composition had significant impact on the melting and fluidity of the slag.

Jan 1, 2010

By G. K. Derby

The Bureau of Mines studied the problems caused by airborne contaminants from welding exhaust in surface mining operations and investigated equipment designed to reduce existing hazards. Four commercially available welding-fume exhaust units were tested to determine their effectiveness. Results indicated that the four units had the capability of controlling airborne particulate concentrations and bringing them to within allowable exposure limits.

Jan 1, 1981

By W. K. Sawyer

In this Bureau of Mines investigation, one-and two-dimensional gas reservoir simulators were combined in such a manner that pressure distributions both in an induced vertical fracture and in the surrounding formation, could be determined as a function of time for any specified well production rate. The technique used consisted basically of the alternate ust of one-and two-dimensional algorithms for obtaining new pressure distributions in the fracture and in the reservoir, respectively. The pressures at adjacent reservoir and fracture nodes were used to calculate flow rates from the formation into the fracture, which provided source terms for both algorithms. The combination model developed provides the only known means of simultaneously simulating transient gas flow in a vertical fracture and the surrounding formation. Thus, the technique developed would be useful in locating wells in a gas storage field in that the effects of both fracture length and conductivity could be considered prior to drilling and fracturing operations. In addition, it will be helpful in analyzing pressure drawdown tests in a vertically fractured gas well since the entire test can be readily simulated for a wide range of reservoir and fracture properties.

Jan 1, 1974

By H. K. Sacks

The Bureau of Mines has improved a mine dust incombustibles analyzer originally developed at the Bartlesville Energy Research Center (BERC). This analyzer provides quick, accurate analysis of the percentage of incombustible material present in dust samples taken from mine ribs, roof, and floor so that costly overdusting may be eliminated while still maintaining a proper level of incombustibles. The changes being effected on the present design of the BERC model IV rock dust analyzer should simplify its operation and calibration procedures, resulting in increased accuracy.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. Bienstock

A high-B.t.u, gas can be synthesized by the catalytic methanation of a mixture of 2.5 to 3 parts of hydrogen to 1 part of carbon monoxide, obtained in the gasification of coal, using a steel catalyst followed by Raney nickel in a hot-gas-recycle system. Conversion of 99 percent of the H2+CO yields a fuel gas with a heating value of 983 to 1130 B.t.u. per cubic foot containing 78 to 96 percent methane, no carbon monoxide, and very small amounts of unsaturated hydrocarbons. With the steel catalyst alone, conversions were 85 to 90 percent, giving a fuel gas of 810 to 868 B.t.u, per cubic foot, or 847 to 975 B.t.u. on a C02-free basis. INTRODUCTION In 1948 the U.S, marketed production of natural gas was 5.15 trillion cubic feet; by 1958 it had reached 11.0 trillion cubic feet, a rate of growth of 8 percent annually. 4 5 Although demand is expected to increase less rapidly, by 1966 it may reach 16 trillion cubic feet, based on an estimated 4.7 percent annual increase.6

Jan 1, 1961

By Vijia K. Karra

The goal of aggregates producing companies across the United States is to ensure their workers go home safely each day. At the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), researchers are pursuing this vision of safety and health through a fact-finding approach for reducing injury illness in various mineral sectors. Surveillance data from Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) has been the source for such analyses. It helps to focus research efforts on key machinery, workers, and their tasks. The second installment of this two-part series follows last month's focus on crushed stone.

By W. K. Overbey

Knowledge of fracture systems in oil or gas reservoirs is essential to the efficiency of both primary and secondary production operations. A relationship was established between structural features of the surface and both natural and induced fractures in oil and gas reservoirs, thus providing a method of predicting the direction of rock fracture prior to field development and well completion. Correlations between the surface features and under-ground fractures resulted from analysis of joint strike measurements, bottom-hole impression packer surveys, photographs of hydraulically fractured wells, fracture data from oriented cores, in situ strain measurements from formation outcrops, and lineament analyses from aerial photographs. The mean orientation of surface fractures, lineaments, and stress field directions ranged from N 53° E to N 73° E, compared with an average orientation of N 63° E for the hydraulically induced fractures. Tectonic stress field was shown to influence the direction of hydraulically induced fractures. This report presents the details and application of techniques to obtain the orientation of the principal horizontal compressive stress field component and thus the direction of induced fractures.

Jan 1, 1971

By Ronald S. Conti

This U.S. Bureau of Mines report discusses the results of research conducted in the Bureau's experimental mine at Lake Lynn Laboratory on the response of fire sensors to simulated mine fires, which included (1) a slowly developing coal-conveyor belt fire, (2) a rapidly burning liquid fuel-belt fire, and (3) a liquid fuel-belt fire in the presence of diesel exhaust. During these tests, several mine fire sensors were evaluated with respect to sensor placement, spacing, and type. The data indicate that smoke sensors alarm several minutes before CO sensors do; and that, in the presence of diesel exhaust, a prototype diesel-discriminating smoke sensor can successfully function without being sensitive to the diesel contaminants. The vertical placement of sensors in the entry near the fire was also shown to be critical in terms of alarm times. Additional data showed that variations exist in response time and level of response for two brands of electrochemical CO sensor. Results also indicate that early detection of fires will improve the probability of miners' escape, because of reduced smoke concentrations during the incipient stages of the fire.

Jan 1, 2010

By H. A. Doerner

For the past three or four years attention has been attracted to the deposits of lead vanadate in the Goodsprings , Nevada , district . Some ore running as high as 9 per cent 205 has been produced , but most of it runs from 0.5 to 3 per cent . Only a little ore , and that of the richer sort , has been shipped , since the low- grade ore will not stend the cost of shipment and no concentration mill has been available . Preliminary experiments indicate that chemical treatment of the low- grade ore without concentration is not feasible . Its treatment therefore involves two distinct problems ; first , mechanical concentration ; and second , a smelting or chemical treatment to obtain the lead and vanadium in marketable form . Upon this basis the work has been conducted . The writer wishes to acknowledge the excellent work done by J. T. Norton and Virgil Miller on table concentration and by J. E. Conley , who suggested and did preliminary work on the direct smelting method . Many helpful suggestions were received from Dr. S. C. Lind and John Gross of the Bureau of Mines . The ores were furnished by Mr. Frank Williams and Mr. James Ewing .

Jan 1, 1923