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By Philip Bonanno

The first major project in Boston's new access to Logan Airport was an Immersed Tube Tunnel which extended 3,600 ft. from South Boston to East Boston across Boston Harbor. Twelve tube sections, 300 ft. long x 80 ft. wide x 40 ft. high, were lowered into an excavated trench which was then backfilled. The depth of the trench at mid-channel was approximately 100 ft. below mean high tide. At the East Boston end the tube terminated close to the present shoreline. At the South Boston end the tube terminated approximately 600 ft. inland from the shore line where a ventilation building was required. The depth to subgrade from existing ground at the ventilation structure was approximately 85 ft. The soil profile at this location consisted of 50 ft. of miscellaneous rubble fill, 25 ft. of Boston blue clay, and 10 ft. of glacial till. A small amount of weathered argellite existed at the north end of the structure. Part of the Morrison Knudsen, Interbeton, J.F. White, Joint Venture contract to construct the Immersed Tube Tunnel (ITT) was the construction of a cofferdam at the tube/ventilation building interface. The ventilation building was to be built as part of another contract. The construction of the cofferdam and the excavation to the building subgrade was the responsibility of J.F. White Contracting Company.

Jan 1, 1994

By Thomas A. Printz

The wide use of carbon steel in construction and engineering projects makes this engineering material accountable for approximately 85% of the total annual steel production worldwide. Despite the lack of corrosion resistance of carbon steel, it is incorporated into the permanent work for marine applications, power plants, transportation projects, chemical processing, mining, petroleum production and refining, pipelines, mining and construction equipment. Corrosion is an electro-chemical process that occurs in the presence of water and air. When an electric current is introduced to water or soil, the rate of carbon steel corrosion increases rapidly. Gaseous atmospheric constituents that are capable of electrolytic activity can also increase the rate of corrosion. Corrosion tends to be more rapid in environments in which the steel is exposed to water, and then air, rather than being constantly submerged. The exposure to seawater increases steel pitting because the electrical conductivity is improved in salt water.

Jan 1, 2013

By Lu Peiyan

A computation model of soil-pile (wall) interaction under lateral loading is presented in this paper. The model has been applied to some engineering projects, and the comparison between computation result and measured result shows good agreement, so the model is proved to be correct and practical.

Jan 1, 1991

By J. Nakayama

Construction of foundation piles or diaphragm walls through rocky or boulder containing formations has been long-standing difficulty. It has been widely understood that the down-the-hole hammer is the most capable mechanical means but is restricted in drilling diameter by the unavailability of drillhead sufficiently large diameter and the difficulty of disposal of cuttings. A great number of submersible motordrills have been used for the construction of cast-in-place piles and diaphragm walls and the reverse circulation system employed has demonstrated its advantage of the prompt removal of cuttings. The development of multi-head down-the-hole hammer drill combined with reverse circulation system presents a powerful engineering choice for those "hard-to-drill" ground formations. This paper will introduce the features of the system and some actual operation results in the foundation engineering through those hard rocky ground formation in some countries.

Jan 1, 1989

By Maurice Bottiau

It is a quite challenging objective to aim at covering in one paper the most recent evolution in piling and deep foundations technologies. This report has to be understood within the limits of the session 2b. It will therefore concentrate on the technological evolution of deep foundation techniques, addressing design issues only when directly related to execution aspects. For the same reason, it will not address the related codes, as a separate session of this conference is specifically dedicated to this topic. Monitoring and deep excavations being covered in other sessions, they will only be addressed when clearly relevant. We will try to show, from a practical viewpoint what are the main changes and the most exciting or critical issues over the last years, as they appear from the topics addressed in the literature or in the papers published in this session of the conference. As the paper mostly intends to explain trends and critical topics, it cannot be exhaustive, neither can it give the full description of the case studies. The author invites the reader to read the full papers, for a more complete description. We have divided our report in three main topics: Piling, soil improvement and treatment and retaining walls. Anchors and tie-backs will not be treated, neither tunneling.

Jan 1, 2006

By George K. Burke

Jet grouting was first introduced into North America in the late 1970's, soon after the conception of the system in Japan. However, it was not until the mid-1980's that the technique began to gain acceptance through the renewed interest and efforts of specialist U.S. geotechnical contractors. Since this time, innovations by both American users and other users worldwide have further advanced the technology, with a corresponding increase in the range of practical applications. This paper discusses the evolution of jet grouting in North America, from simple single-fluid methods to more complex triple-fluid methods, to the energy-intensive double-fluid and SuperJet methods. Case histories, illustrating a variety of jet grouting methods and applications, are cited to support the newest United States applications.

Jan 1, 2002

By A. Holeyman

The displacement compaction piles described in the paper are installed using a heavy casing or tube and an internal drop hammer. The casing which initially is closed at the bottom by a sand plug displaces the surrounding soil during the driving. Additional sand is rammed down through the casing during the extraction of the casing. The applications and limitations of the method are reviewed in the paper. The importance of checking the sand compaction piles during and after the installation is stressed. Indications of the compaction of the surrounding soil during the driving can be obtained by comparing the initial and the redriving logs of the casing as well as from the volume of sand added. A method to estimate the increase of the mean cone resistance as measured by CPT tests in sandy and silty soils is presented. The governing parameters are the volume of the added sand, the granulometric index and the initial cone resistance.

Jan 1, 2010

By Masaki Kitazume

Deep mixing method, in-situ admixture stabilization technique, has been developed and adopted for on land and marine construction works in Japan. The geotechnical design procedure of the method has been standardized in Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Government of Japan for port and harbor facilities, which includes the block type and wall type improved grounds for foundation stability, settlement reduction purpose. This procedure is based on the allowable stress concept, in which the induced stresses within the improved ground are confirmed to be lower than the allowable strength in the internal stability calculation. This procedure has been cited by several organizations to establish their standards. The Ministry has a plan to introduce a reliability based design for marine construction works in 2006, in which the design procedure on DM improved ground will also be modified to the reliability based. In the new design procedure, the average and variation of soil parameters and external loads are incorporated by partial safety factors to investigate the stability of improved ground. According to the plan, the author has been studied the design procedure and the magnitude of partial safety factors, and has established a preliminary draft of the standard. This draft will be brushed up through comparing the current design procedure. In this article, the design concept and design procedure of the method are briefly described.

Jan 1, 2004

By Wolfgang G. Brunner

The closing of the gap in the European waterway- net is one of the big and challenging traffic projects following the German reunification. The water canals in the North German plain connect the Rhine river, the border between Germany and France, with the Oder, the German border river to Poland. As early as in the 30's of the 19th century the planning and construction of a ship- lift and a canal bridge started, in order to close this last big gap in the system between the Mittelland Canal and the Elbe- Havel Canal near Magdeburg. This main waterway connects the West of Germany, known for its coal mines and steel mills, with the capital Berlin, and from there it goes on into Poland. The building activities started in 1934 but came to a complete stop in 1942 because of the war. The communist government in East Germany was not interested in continuing this huge project, including the ship lock Rothensee, the canal bridge crossing the river Elbe, the former border river between West and East Germany, and the lock Hohenwarthe due to lack of political backing along with low construction capacity. Now this important project is in progress and this report describes the special foundation techniques used on the great ship lock Hohenwarthe. Hohenwarthe is a double- bay ship lock of considerable scale, which is notable for recirculating water rather than letting it flow. It includes 44 800 m2 ( 481 720 sq. ft) of up to 55 m ( 180 ft) deep cut- off walls, ground water control, 1248 bored piles with a depth of 22 m ( 72 ft ) serving as foundation and 28 000 m ( 91 864 ft) of soil densification with vibroflotation equipment for ground improvement. In the year 2003 the project shall be completed and all ships can travel from the West to the East through Germany without expensive and time- consuming detours through other canals and locks.

Jan 1, 2000

By A. R. Gaba

Phase I of the Canary Wharf development in London's docklands involves the construction of six fifteen storey buildings located predominantly over water of the West India Docks. The buildings are supported on some 1000 No., 25m long, open ended steel tubular piles driven through 10m of dock water to found in dense sand at a depth of about 15m below dock bed level. The piles are of composite section with reinforced concrete within the upper 17m of the steel tube. Three trial piles were installed in the dock to investigate the driveability and performance of the driven steel tubular piles. The piles were subjected to dynamic and static load testing. Loads were applied in both vertical and horizontal directions. Vibrating wire strain gauges were installed on the inside of the steel piles, on the reinforcement and in the concrete to determine the relative proportions of the applied load carried by the steel tube and concrete infill and to establish how these proportions varied along the length of the piles. Inclinometers were also installed to monitor the lateral deflection of the piles. This paper describes the driving, construction and testing of the three trial piles. The results of the vertical and horizontal loading tests are discussed and comparisons are made between dynamic and static tests carried out on the piles.

Jan 1, 1989

By Jason N. Scott

CFA piling is a ?blind? construction process that relies heavily on the rig instrumentation to produce sound piles. If the data measured and recorded during construction can be made available to engineers and managers within hours after construction then there are many economic and quality control benefits that can be realised. A state of the art CFA instrumentation and data management process has been developed in the UK. The key components of the instrumentation, GSM data service and the central database are described. Many benefits to the business have been realised and, where possible, these are quantified.

Jan 1, 2006

By Anthony H. Tawil

Modern, high-speed machines used in the manufacture of paper require foundations with stringent settlement constraints. To fulfill this requirement, caisson piles, extending into bedrock, were selected to support a paper machine in Baie Comeau for the Quebec North Shore Paper Company (QNSPCo.). This was the fourth machine in an existing paper mill, and its construction was part of an expansion program which included the building of associated structures such as a wood room and chip storage building, and other facilities, Figure 1. The paper mill in Baie Comeau, Quebec, is located in an area which has extensive deposits of sensitive marine clay which are transformed into a viscous liquid when disturbed by external forces such as the driving of piles. Loss of ground and soil disturbance as affected by piling activity assumed considerable importance in the design and construction of the caissons particularly in view of the proximity of existing plant facilities, including another paper machine.

Jan 1, 1987

By James S. Graham

Foundation pile driving hammers used in New York City in the past 100 years have been drop, steam, compressed air, diesel, and hydraulic. In 1992, the first hydraulic hammer in the New York City area was purchased by Norwalk Marine Contractors, Inc. from Junttan in Finland. It was bought because of its variable energy and ease of mobilization, not because of its higher transferred energy. Heller and Johnsen engineers instrumented hydraulic hammers on nine jobs. The measured transferred energy for the nine jobs was found to average approximately 80 percent. There is no clear consensus regarding the reasons for the hydraulic hammer being more efficient in delivering energy to the pile as compared to single-acting steam/air impact hammers. To minimize pile damage during installation, and to minimize footage overruns, an up-to-date version of the wave equation software that includes an efficiency value of 0.95 for hydraulic hammers is now used.

Jan 1, 2000

By Peng Jiahong

With ultrasonics application during checking the large diameter cast-in-situ pile body, it is usualy applied the statistical method of probability and PSD. This paper presents a converse probabilistic-analytical method which can identify important anomalies, both strong and weak, during interfered situation. So the inhomogeneity in concrete pile may be ellectively distinguished. In order to ensure the capacity of bed rock support layer under large diameter pile, a test-in-situ is conducted to determine the compresive strength and shear force inserting rock of the support layer, so the compresive strength and modulus value of elasticity of bed rock tested will closely tally with the actual situation.

Jan 1, 1991

By Geoffrey C. Hebner

Augered, cast-in-place piles (ACIP) have become a very common foundation type in Atlanta and the Southern Piedmont Province as well as much of the United States in the past 20 years. Prior to the introduction of ACIP foundations in Atlanta, the most common deep foundation type was Raymond piles. Raymond piles are basically a driven, thin-walled step-tapered steel pile filled with concrete. Drilled piers were also relatively common and continue to be used, particularly in shallow bedrock or high column load situations. Driven piles, including pipes, H-sections, and timber piles were previously common with working loads typically in the 30 to 50-ton range. Initially, ACIP foundations had similar allowable capacities, however, over time improvements in installation techniques and equipment have resulted in an increase in allowable ACIP capacities. Correspondingly, they have become a more cost-effective and trusted foundation for geotechnical and structural engineers. Over the next several decades many other deep foundation alternatives began to lose popularity. ACIP are one of the predominant deep foundations in Atlanta and the Southern Piedmont today. Although ACIP foundations have widespread popularity in the private sector, they have not been readily accepted currently by government transportation agencies. ACIP may be used by some of the smaller municipalities, but to the author's knowledge, have not been used with regularity by larger, state agencies.

Jan 1, 2003

Precast prestressed concrete piles designed to be end-bearing in a sand stratum at Drax Power Station met with extremely variable resistance during driving. Some piles came to virtual refusal almost immediately on entering the sand whereas others were driven to considerable penetration with very low resistance. Redriving and load tests on piles experiencing low resistance on initial drive showed that take up in strength occurred over a relatively short period of time. Investigations involving the use of pneumatic piezometers revealed the development of significant excess pore pressures during driving. Samples from boreholes showed that piles met the least resistance when the sand had a high silt content. Comparison with the original site investigation data demonstrated the difficulties in predicting detailed pile behaviour. The varied behaviour could not be related to the original borehole logs or to SPT or static cone penetrometer results. The factors controlling pile driving behaviour were essentially geological and could only be explained with reference to local soil grading.

Jan 1, 1989

By Gordon King

The City of Atlanta Water Department required the construction of a two sludge tanks and a wet well at the existing Chattahoochee Water Treatment Plant. Western Summit won a design build contract to build the project and proceeded to evaluate the wet well size options, and construction procedures. The final design required the construction of a 1 million gallon tank. The proximity of the underground tank to adjacent roads and existing plant structures ruled out laying back the excavation. As a result a tied back sheet pile retaining wall was initially proposed.

Jan 1, 2003

By Patrick Bermingham

The advancement of hydraulic impact hammers has followed the general advancement of hydraulics. The construction industry has been revolutionized by the application of hydraulics in excavators, cranes and, of course, in the hydraulic vibratory driver/extractor, which has become a standard tool. The innate ability to move a large mass with a very small displaced volume has given hydraulic power the advantage over previous power mediums. Recent development of more specialized and complex seal configurations and compounds has greatly improved the reliability and permitted the use of higher pressures in hydraulic systems.

Jan 1, 1987

By Brian P. Waagner

Construction law in general and the law of deep foundations in particular continues to develop rapidly, particularly in the areas of risk allocation. Public and private owners are increasingly using contractual disclaimers to shift the risk of differing site conditions to contractors, and courts are increasingly willing to enforce these contractual devices. Perhaps also in an effort to control costs, public and private owners are turning to design-build contracting techniques. While design-build offers many advantages over traditional project delivery systems, it does not answer all of the risk-allocation questions that frequently arise. Even in design-build, problems with unanticipated subsurface conditions and defective design are not easily addressed. Finally, developments in electronic commerce present the potential to transform the construction industry.

Jan 1, 2002

By David S. Yang

The construction of Oakland Airport Roadway Project for the airport expansion requires stabilization of subsurface soils for the construction of three grade separation structures at two roadway interchanges and the intersection of a roadway and taxiway serving the airport. Loose sandy fills and soft Bay Mud were improved by Cement Deep Soil Mixing (CDSM) for the construction of a soil-cement foundation under the MSE (Mechanically Stabilized Earth) walls of a roadway overcrossing and a soil-cement gravity retaining wall to maintain stability of a roadway undercrossing during and after a major earthquake. CDSM was also used to construct two cutoff walls for groundwater control. A test section was carried out prior to full production to verify that the CDSM equipment, installation procedures, and mix designs could produce the soil-cement with required strength, uniformity, and permeability to meet the design intent. Additional test sections were performed for the confirmation or modification of the mix design and installation procedure to cope with the complex subsurface conditions resulting from the historical development of the site. The test section revealed that the CDSM cutoff walls, retaining wall, and foundation improvements could be constructed to satisfy the design requirements and that the intermittent test sections alleviate the impact of the varying subsurface conditions. Based on the data obtained from the test sections, one CDSM cutoff wall was completed in July 2000. Full production of the CDSM retaining wall, cutoff wall, and foundation began in March 2001 and is expected to be complete in November 2001.

Jan 1, 2001