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By K. Terhaar

The objective was to determine operating protocols for a lead and silver column flotation cleaner, being considered for installation at Sunshine Mining & Refining Co.'s Kellogg mill in Northern Idaho. In this column, tetrahedrite and galena were floated, and pyrite and other gangue minerals, including siderite and silica, were depressed. The procedure was to develop a dynamic simulation using a linear transfer function approach. The transfer function related cause and effect variables such as the influence of collector and depressant dosages on recovery and grades. Bench-scale flotation tests followed by pilot column testing provided the data used to develop a linear transfer function. The transfer function was derived using a spreadsheet. This model was applied to simulate how the flotation column could be made to respond to disturbances in feed grade. The results were that xanthate, zinc sulfate, and sodium cyanide were found to be suitable controls for grade and recovery. Simulations showed the best sequence of manipulations of these reagents, and these sequences were useful for future operator training. The conclusion was that linear transfer functions were able to simulate lead and silver recovery, develop scenarios for operator training, and provide a foundation for future on-line control.

Jan 1, 1999

By C. N. Bensley, S. K. Nicol, R. Lamb, G. W. Kidd

Flotation circuits in the metalliferous industry recover high value concentrates from very fine (minus 0.lmm), low grade, slow-floating feeds. Flotation columns acting as final cleaners within these circuits offer the benefits of higher grade concentrates, reduced circuit complexity, improved control and reduced power consumption. By contrast, in the coal industry, these benefits have not been realised, principally because columns are not well suited to the treatment of conventional coal flotation feeds (minus 0.5m). However, this does not imply that columns do not have a place within the coal industry, rather that they must be applied in a role where all the unique advantages of column flotation can be of benefit. The development of a commercial scale column to recover discarded ultrafines from the Riverside preparation plant of BHP-Utah Coal Limited is discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on the column design features pertinent to the recovery of ultrafine coal. Pilot and commercial scale column performances are compared. The results of the commercial scale testwork indicate that a full installation at the 5.5 MTPA Riverside plant would annually recover additional coal worth $US 6.6M.

Jan 1, 1988

By C. E. Golson

The preparation of aggregates is a form of mineral processing which has been taken for granted for many years, mostly because of its lack of glamour when compared to the winning of metallic minerals from their ores. Many of the processes and equipment now used in the metallic mineral processing industries originated in the more prosaic preparation of aggregates. 'Their adaptation to metallurgical processes has led to developments both in their design, and in their use. Modern practice, has been so exacting in its demands that, in many cases, this improved technology is finding new applications in the very industry in which it originated the mineral aggregate industry, The low cost requirements, large tonnage capacities and complex specifications which govern the acceptability of its products have node modern aggregate processing a much different art than it was one or two generations ago. The basic conditions which govern the type and quality of mineral aggregates were presented in an addendum to a paper given at the San Francisco Meeting in 1959 by one of the authors.

Jan 1, 1961

By Leslie G. McMillion

A field project to develop and demonstrate a method for alleviating problems of highly-mineralized ground water where they occur as isolated zones or pockets in fresh-water aquifers is being conducted in the Ogallala Aquifer of eastern New Mexico by the Robert S. Kerr Water Research Center. Removal of contaminated water is by a large-capacity well and the pumped poor-quality water is used locally for secondary recovery of oil, Benefits of the operation are threefold in that the aquifer is being reclaimed for future fresh water production, contaminated water is being used beneficially, and fresh water which otherwise would have been used for waterflooding is available for other purposes. Ground-water quality in the site has improved markedly after 21 months of operation. Water quality in 15 specially-drilled monitoring wells has returned to the original quality level of the aquifer, and chloride concen¬trations in the pumping well have dropped to half the maximum level recorded thus far. Project results are very favorable and provide guidelines for initiation of similar undertakings in localities where needed.

Jan 1, 1970

By Janet A. Johnson, T. B. Borak, K. J. Schiager

INTRODUCTION In the USA regulatory agencies have adopted standards which limit the allowable concentration of ore dust in underground uranium mines. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists has recommended a threshold limit value for silica which has been incorporated by reference in federal regulations (30 CFR 57, 1980). The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) imposes a limit for unprocessed uranium ore dust for reducing the exposure to radioactive materials from inhalation (10 CFR 20, 1980). We have been unable to trace the origin of the NRC standard. Recently the ICRP has published recommendations concerning limits for intakes of radionuclides by workers (ICRP, 1979). We have used the ICRP methodology to compute the dose equivalent commitment to lung and bone from inhalation of insoluble ore dust particles. These values were used to derive air concentrations which would provide an acceptable risk for induction of cancer from occupational exposure. Results indicate that the new ICRP recommendations are more restrictive than the present NRC standard for radioactivity. The maximum allowable dust load in a uranium mine will depend on both the concentration of silica (% Si02) and the amount of radioactivity (% U308). We have combined these standards assuming complete independence of biological hazard to establish boundary conditions for which either silica or radioactivity is the dominating factor. Based on these results we present suggestions for analysis of ore dust to insure compliance with regulatory agencies. SILICA STANDARDS Silicosis, fibrotic lung disease produced by crystalline silica, was one of the earliest forms of occupational disease to be recognized. The pulmonary lesions caused by silica, silicotic nodules, consist of concentrically arranged bundles of collagen fibers. Fusion of these nodules results in progressive massive fibrosis causing alveolar changes which decrease ventillation and blood flow in the lungs. The current Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for mineral dusts is based on the concentration of free silica. The standard is expressed in three forms: (1) Particle count standard: TLV (mppcf) = 300/(% Si02 + 10) (mppcf = million particles per cubic foot) (2) Respirable dust mass standard: TLV (mg/m3 ) = 10/(% respirable Si02 + 2) (3) Total dust standard: TLV (mg/m3 ) = 30/(% Si02 + 3) The most commonly used form is the respirable mass standard. These curent values for silica are based primarily on epidemilogical studies of Vermont granite workers and other occupationally exposed workers. In the Vermont study no cases of silicosis were seen in individuals employed after dust control measures were initiated and whose subsequent exposure averaged less than 5 mppcf. The free silica concentration in the airborne dust to which these workers were exposed averaged 25%. A concentration of 10 mppcf of granite dust is considered equivalent to 0.1 mg/m3 quartz. The current respirable mass standard allows a maximum silica concentration of 0.1 mg/m3. NIOSH (1974) has recommended a reduction in the current TLV for respirable silica to 0.05 mg/m3 Si02. As with radiation standards, the TLV for mineral dusts is an upper limit for time weighted average exposure. It is recommended that dust concentrations be maintained as far below the TLV as current practices permit. RADIATION STANDARDS The present concentration limit for airborne natural uranium in ore dust prior to chemical separation is 75 µg of uranium per m3 of air ( 10 CFR 20, 1980) . This corresponds to 1.85 Bq/m3 (50 pCi/m3 ) of natural uranium, U-238, U-235 and U-234 and is equivalent to 3.7 Bq/m3 (100 pCi/m3 ) of gross alpha activity with radioactive equilibrium between the long-lived alpha progeny through Ra-226. The origin or basis for this standard is not known, but it presumably includes both chemical toxicity and risk from somatic radiation injury. Recently the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP, 1977) has published recommendations concerning the objectives and criteria for limiting radiation exposures. This was followed b y a revision of the limits for intake of radionuclides by workers (ICRP, 1979; ICRP, 1980). The previous compilation of limits for internal emitters was published by ICRP Committee II in 1959 (ICRP, 1959). The latest version includes new methodlogy outlined in ICRP Publication 26 (ICRP, 1977) as well as extensive metabolic information

Jan 1, 1981

By J. N. Hartley

Uranium mill tailings, waste products of uranium extraction, contain hazardous constituents that if released into the atmosphere and groundwater could threaten our health and environment. To provide for safe disposal and control of these tailings, Congress enacted the Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-604). Subsequently, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established standards for tailings disposal that limit radon emission into the air to 20 pCi m-2s-1 on an annual average basis (EPA 1983). The design life of the impoundment is to be 1000 years where practicable, but 200 years at least. To facilitate the design of containment systems that will meet the EPA standards, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Department of Energy (DOE) are sponsoring research at the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL)* to develop the necessary technology. Earthen and asphalt materials have been evaluated for use as radon barriers (Hartley 1983) and as liners to minimize leaching (Buelt 1983). Herbicide and rock barriers against biological intrusion have been evaluated (Cline 1982). Surface stabilization techniques have been investigated to maintain the long-term effectiveness of a containment system that must be protected from wind and water erosion, chemical and physical degradation, and biological disturbance.

Jan 1, 1984

By S. L. Crouch

The general term "coal mine burp" refers to the sudden and violent failure of in situ coal. Coal bumps occur in most countries where coal is worked by underground methods, and are related to both geological factors and mining tech¬niques. Although no single set of circumstances is solely responsible for causing coal bumps, it is generally agreed that at least one of five conditions is necessary in order for then to occur: 1,2,3,4 (1) the depth of cover exceeds 500-ft., (2) the overlying strata are relatively strong and stiff, (3) the coal is structurally strong, (4) the floor does not heave readily, and (5) the mining method produces high stresses over a large area of the seam. Except for the last, these conditions relate to geological factors that are impractical to control. Consequently, methods of controlling or minimizing the occurrence of coal bumps usually are concerned with mining techniques. Coal bumps have been successfully controlled by both longwall and 'yielding pillar' mining systems 4. The longwall system is particularly effective in controlling bumps, but does not eliminate them completely, especially in strong coal seams being worked at comparatively great depths, say in excess of 2000-ft.5. Under such conditions, auger drilling or water infusion often prove helpful 5,6. These techniques are used to destress or otherwise alter the mechanical properties of the coal in an attempt to shift the peak "abutment pressure" away from the immediate vicinity of the face. Under 'normal' conditions, however, it can be expected that the coal near the face will be crushed under the prevailing high stress conditions and that the peak abutment pressure will automatically be shifted into the solid coal. In this context, coal mine bumps can be characterized as unstable releases of energy associated with successive yielding of portions of the coal seam with progressive mining. Longwall and yielding pillar mining systems are effective in controlling coal bumps because they ordinarily do not allow the zone of peak abutment pressure to become 'surrounded' by destressed coal.

Jan 1, 1973

By R. Day

Nahcolite is a naturally occurring sodium bicarbonate mineral found principally in the Piceance Creek Basin of northwest Colorado. An 8-m thick nahcolite bed, 610 m below the surface, is the target of this first commercial nahcolite mine. A chamber and pillar mining system is developed by solution mining parallel 8-m tall by 18-m wide by 450-m cavities initiated along horizontally drilled holes. Hot water leaching, cooling crystallization and flash drying is the process. The sodium bicarbonate product is consumed by the baking, animal feed, industrial and acid rain abatement markets. A project overview, emphasizing the combination of horizontal drilling and solution mining technologies, will be presented.

Jan 1, 1994

By Ibezim J. Anazia

Electrothermal production of elemental phosphorous (P4) generates substantial amounts of highly toxic phossy water and sludges. Because of their high phosphorous content and lack of reliable processing technology, large tonnages of these hazardous wastes have accumulated from current and past operations. To date, the sludges are stored in ponds or above ground in special containment vessels at various locations around the country. Two samples of electric furnace phosphorous sludge obtained from the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in Muscle Shoals, Alabama and FMC Corporation in Pocatello, Idaho were investigated using physical separation techniques to recover the elemental phosphorous in the sludge and to render the residual material non-hazardous. The techniques tested include sizing, froth flotation and dispersed air oxidation. Flotation and sizing produced concentrates containing 69 -90% P4 with a recovery in the range of 60 -87%. Dispersed air oxidation of the fines and tailing products was effective in removal of an additional 10 -15% of the P4 in the sludge.

Jan 1, 1991

By Kenneth N. Han

The effect of anions such as sulfate, chloride and nitrate on the solubility of rare earth element (REE)-bearing phosphates and fluoro-carbonates was examined using relevant thermodynamic data. The study found that these anions have significant influences on the overall dissolution of REEs from various sources in the aqueous media.

By J. Noll, C. DeGennaro, C. Zhou, J. Srednicki

"The personal dust monitor (PDM) (model PDM3700), as well as other electronic devices, can cause electromagnetic interference (EMI) which can disrupt the operation of some proximity detection systems (PDSs). A 15 cm (6 inch) minimum separation distance between the miner-wearable component (MWC) of the PDS and the electronic device usually avoids these disruptions, but due to the amount of equipment on a miner’s belt and the method of wearing the PDM in some situations, this distance can be difficult to always reliably maintain. Another method of reducing EMI effects is utilizing magnetic field shielding. The shielding capability of several different materials was investigated by surrounding the PDM with the material and quantifying the EMI. A copper mesh pouch reduced the EMI from a PDM3700, allowing a minimum separation distance of 10 cm (4 inches) instead of 15 cm (6 inches) as shown in a previous study for an unshielded PDM. A MU-metal box had a better shielding effectiveness, as it further reduced the minimum separation distance to less than 7 cm (2.8 inches). Shielding reduced the EMI of the PDM with MU-metal providing better results than the copper mesh. These materials may be beneficial for shielding individual components of the PDM or for constructing a shielded pouch. However, before the advantages of a shielded pouch can be determined, the effects of just the shielding material (metal) on the PDS needs to be quantified. INTRODUCTION According to statistics from the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), 43 miners have been fatally struck or pinned by a continuous mining machine (CMM) since 1984. In an effort to prevent future striking and pinning fatalities from occurring, proximity detection systems (PDSs) have been developed and are required on all operating CMMs in underground coal mines, with the exception of full-face CMMs, by 2018 (MSHA, 2015)."

Jan 1, 2018

By D. A. Norrgran, J. A. Wernham

Introduction In view of the continuing depletion of natural resources, requirements for energy conservation, plant optimization and hazardous waste management, and environmental consciousness, recycling and secondary recovery of materials are being developed with increasing interest Many secondary recovery processes are being developed that apply mineral processing technology. Gravity separation, magnetic separation and flotation have all emerged as explicit methods for recovering residual values from various process streams and hazardous constituents from waste streams. Recently, a technique for concentrating metallics has been successfully reintroduced. The concept of the alternating magnetic field eddy-current separator was developed over a century ago using rudimentary electromagnets (Patent 400317 issued to Thomas Edison on March 26, 1889). Widespread acceptance was, however, hindered by high costs, marginal results and poor economic incentives for secondary recovery. With the recent increased interest in secondary recovery and the development of high-energy rare earth permanent magnets, the eddy-current separator has now gained prominent acceptance. The separation forces imparted by an eddy current separator are the function of the magnetic field intensity and the alternating frequency of the magnetic field. The evolution of permanent magnets has provided a cost effective alternative for the generation of high-intensity magnetic fields. High-energy rare earth permanent magnets have substantially reduced the capital and operating costs over the electromagnetic circuits employed in antecedent eddy-current separators. Specifically, in recent years, the strength of permanent magnets has increased several fold with neodymium-boron-iron rare earth magnets now providing an energy product of 35 million gauss-oersted. Figure 1 shows the evolution in the strength of permanent magnets. The development of these rare earth magnets has led to the design of circuits possessing a magnetic force an order of magnitude greater than that of conventional permanent magnetic circuits. The eddy-current separator has been successfully applied in several metal sorting and recovery operations. Most common is the sorting of metal from shredded automobile scrap and municipal waste. With the advent of high-frequency, high-intensity magnetic fields, the separator has advanced to the point where it has direct application in the beneficiation of fine sized metals. Relatively fine sized (-1/4 in.) metal bearing slags and spent foundry casting sands as well as precious metal hearing electronic scrap demonstrate excellent metallurgical response to the eddy-current separator, and applications have progressed to finer materials and more selective separations. Theory Electrical currents are induced in all conductors when exposed to an alternating magnetic field. The induced current generates a magnetic field in the conductor that opposes that of the alternating magnetic field. Figure 2, is a schematic illustration of generated eddy currents. In this particular example, the alternating magnetic field is produced by a series of permanent magnets mounted on the circumference of a rotor. The permanent magnets have alternating polarity. As the rotor revolves, an alternating magnetic field is produced, and the rate of revolution determines the frequency of the alternating magnetic field. When a conductor, such as a metallic disc in the illustration, is placed in the alternating magnetic field, a closed loop current flow occurs. The current loop in the conductor produces a magnetic field that is a mirror image of the alternating magnetic field. At any point in time, the induced magnetic field in the conductor directly opposes the alternating magnetic field. This opposition of magnetic fields produces an instantaneous repulsion in the conductor. The conductor is consequently repelled from the rotor. The alternating magnetic field has no effect on nonmetallic materials as they pass through the magnetic field and discharge the rotor in a natural trajectory. [ ]

Jan 1, 1992

By Krawiec Alfons

The threat of rock bursts along with the danger from methane gas and coal dust explosions belongs to particularly dangerous phenomena in Polish pit-coal mines. This phenomenon results mainly from the physical-mechanical properties of the rock mass as well as the geological-tectonic structure of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin. In the postwar years in Polish coal mining thanks to a multi- directional activity, a decrease of rock bursts and their effects has been noted. For example, the number of rock bursts reported in 1965 amounted to 71 in comparison to only 23 in 1974. The ratio of rock bursts calculated for 100,000 tons of coal extracted from rock bursting strata amounted to 0.08 in 1965; however, in 1974 it amounted to 0.023 /Fig. 1/. These results were obtained in face of a continually growing potential threat from rock bursts caused by the systematic increase of extraction from rock bursting strata, exploitation at gradually greater depths along with the extension of exploitation into deposits enclosed in different types of pillars and other parts of deposits surrounded by workings. Despite the achievements of science and mining practice in this field, this threat has not yet been fully studied and controlled as it should be, As a result, research on preventing rock bursts is being continually widened in Poland. This research has a complex, multi-staged and long-range character. Theory, laboratory and field work in the mines are working on a solution to the problem.

Jan 1, 1976

By James A. L. White

Although the quantity of native sulphur associated with volcanism is large, production from such deposits represents only a very small percentage of total world production, This paper describes the location of the known deposits, the typical geology of these deposits and the nature of the sulphur mineralization. Methods of treatment are discussed and some comments are offered on the economic position of these occurences in world sulphur markets.

Jan 1, 1967

By Willard C. Lacy

Survival of the mining industry as a viable economic entity in the United States is being seriously threatened by declining grades of ore reserves, rising operational and capital costs, and increased governmental taxes, restrictions, and subsidizing of third world competition. Discovery of major high-grade deposits is becoming increasingly unlikely. International competitiveness of the U.S. deposits will depend upon 'Yankee Ingenuity', innovations in mining methods, metallurgical treatment, and financial arrangements, and a viable national strategy. This will require not only effective management for control of operations, but management that encourages breakthroughs in technology, financing, labor relations, and in public and governmental understanding. The mine geologist and the exploration geologist both have important roles to play in all aspects of this fight for survival of the industry.

Jan 1, 1984

By Stig Premfors

Lamco Joint Venture is operating a Dravo Pelletizing machine to produce pellets from the natural slimes of an earthy hematite ore. The grate area of the machine 3.3 x 106 m equal to 350 m2 (3800 sq. ft.) and the installed fan capacity is 8200 HP. The limiting factor for production is normally fan capacity. This means that the processing fans can not pull the additional air (i.e the additional calories or BTUs) through the bed which would be required for increased production. A way to increase production without major modifications is to supply the additional calories needed for increase production by adding coal to the pellet feed. After successful laboratory tests following method of coal addition has been chosen and the following results have been obtained. 1. The ground coal is added to the slurry prior to the filters and the rotary dryer. 2. By adding 0.6% coal, an increase of about 15% in production rate has been obtained. 3. No significant changes of metallurgical properties have been observed (i.e. tumbler index, compressive strength, ferrous iron content, reducibility, Linder degradation and swelling). 4. No unexpected operation problems have been experienced. The pellet discharge temperature increases and is the limit for how much production can be increased by coal addition without making plant modifications.

Jan 1, 1971

By Brendan Donnelly, Jung-Hoon Sul, Lasitha Piyathilaka, Sanghyun Jeong, Benjamin Probyn

The chains of armored face conveyor (AFCs) are constantly in contact with water and wet coal, which results in a significant proportion of unplanned downtime experienced on longwall equipment due to corrosion. While reverse osmosis (RO) is one of the most prevalent water treatment methods for reducing salinity and dissolved solids in coal mining, its impact on the corrosion of the AFC chains has not been well studied. This work studies the direct effects of RO water on the corrosion of AFC chains. Immersion tests followed by surface micromorphology analysis and corrosion indices indicate that the RO water increased the corrosion rate of the AFC chains due to the reduced tendency of preventive films on the chains.

May 1, 2024

By Paul T. Allsman

The guiding principle in developing this plan resulted from evaluating potential future markets for oil, the quantity of mineable oil shale and the optimum rate of production comensurate with market demand on the available oil from shale. In addition, the rate of production may depend upon a solution to the problems of scarcity of resources other than oil shale. The rate of production finally will tend to establish the choice of technologies with these limits. The principle components discussed will be: 1) The place of oil shale among the various energy sources and its relative adaptability for use in the area of major consumptive demand. 2) A recalculation of the reserves and their classification on the basis of quantity, grade - gallons per ton, - and physical characteristics principally thickness, overburden and depth.

Jan 1, 1982

By E. A. Zawadzki

The problem of pollution of water by mine drainage is at least as old as the mining industry itself. However, research on the formation, composition, treatment, and abatement of mine water is a relatively recent historical event. At Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., acid mine drainage control has been an important area of work since 1944, at which time BCR began sponsorship of research at West Virginia University. The work at West Virginia University involved a detailed study of the acid mine drainage problem and led to the identification of iron oxidizing bacteria as important factors in the formation of acid mine water. The results of this research were summarized in 1954 by Temple and Koehler (1) who concluded that "no practical solution for the problem" of controlling acid mine drainage is yet known.?

Jan 1, 1967

By K. A. Foo

Minproc Resources Inc. is developing a tailings retreatment project in Bolivia at the Colquiri zinc-tin-silver mine, in the Bolivian Andes. Mining at Colquiri has been continuous since 1940 and COMIBOL, the Bolivian state mining company, has owned and operated the underground mine since 1964. There are 10 million tonnes of tailings at Colquiri containing 0.51% Sn, 4.21% Zn and 50 g/t Ag. Minproc plans to mine and concentrate the tailings at 1.15 million tonnes per year to produce feed for pyrometallurgical upgrading. The tailings are moderately complex, with cassiterite grain size ranging from 200 to 5 pm. The marmatite (ZnFeS) in the tailings is relatively easily recovered, with zinc recovery of 80% to a 40%-45% Zn concentrate. The major problem with the zinc metallurgy is that the marmatite is complexed with iron, which results in iron contents of 14%-17% Fe in concentrate. This makes the product very difficult to sell because of the low Zn:Fe ratio. Most zinc smelters require a Zn:Fe ratio of 6:1 or 7:1, whereas this concentrate has a 3:1 ratio. Concentrate sale terms are therefore unfavorable, and the high cost of transportation from Bolivia to the smelters is an additional burden.

Jan 1, 1992