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By H. Brandhorst, C. G. Dunn

THE main purpose of the present note is to provide further information on the effect of orientation on strain-induced grain boundary migration in sheet material. A secondary purpose is to draw attention to the presence of a possible (hkl) dependent surface energy driving force, when the two grains of a bicrystal specimen have different (hk2) planes at the gas-metal interface, and to suggest means of eliminating this effect from the strain effect. If two grains A and B of a bicrystal have specific surface energies ? A and ? B respectively, there exists a driving force for grain boundary migration equal to 2(? B - ? A)/t, where t is the thickness of the specimen.' When t is quite small and the residual strain energy densities €A and €B of grains A and B, respectively, adjacent to the boundary are nearly equal, it is possible that the surface effect may be larger than the strain effect. he difference € B - € A gives a driving force per unit area of grain boundary due to an applied strain.)2 However, with increasing t the surface effect decreases while the strain effect presumably remains constant. Therefore, at some sufficiently large value of t, it is possible to ignore surface energy driving forces.* On the other hand, the surface effect is eliminated for all value of t when both grains have the same (hkl) orientation or have identical values of surface energy. Although the previous study provided information on the effect of orientation on strain-induced erain boundary migration,' no orientations with the (100) plane in the plane of the sheet were included. The present paper provides information of this kind. A seed crystal reorientation technique4 was used to prepare a large bicrystal of silicon iron (3 1/4 pct Si) consisting of two (100) grains in the (100) [001] and (100) [Oil] orientations. After a cold rolling strain (7 pct reduction to 3/4 mm final thickness), small specimens were prepared as before2 and then annealed in hydrogen. The boundary migration was such that the grain in the (100) [011] orientation always grew. After overnight anneals at 1100° or 1000°C, none of the initial (100) [001] grain remained. An anneal of 30 min at 950°c, however, provided information on the start of boundary migration. Fig. 1 shows both the initial position (lower line) and the final position (upper curved line) of part of the boundary, as revealed by thermal grooves. In a different area, part of the final boundary was not revealed by thermal grooves; the rate of boundary migration presumably was too high for the growth front to be defined by the time dependent thermal grooving process. In another area there was a vacated intermediate position connected to the initial position of the grain boundary. This indicates that only part of the boundary

Jan 1, 1962

The Lornex mine is located in the Highland Valley area of British Columbia, Canada, one of the most,promising districts of low-grade porphyry-type copper mineralization in the world; Lornex is operated by Rio Algom Mines, Limited, a member of the Rio Tinto Zinc Group of London. Exploration from 1965 to 1968 disclosed an ore body of 293 million tons with a grade of 0.43% copper and 0. 14% molybdenum; this led to the decision to construct a 38,000 tpd operation, and production commenced in the fall of 1972. The ore is open-pit mined with 15 cu yd (11 5 m3 shovels, which load 100- and 200 -ton trucks. These trucks dump directly into a 60 in. by 89 in. Allis -Chalmers gyratory from two sides of the 14 ft 6 in. (4.42 m) deep dump pocket and across splitters mounted on the pocket sides. The unlined pocket would hold 1,000 tons level full. The crushedore discharges into a 300-ton surge hopper equipped with an automatic sonic level indicator to prevent over -filling. A 96 in. by 23 ft (2.44 m by 7 m) apron feeder delivers the ore from the surge hopper to a 72 in. (1.83 m) transfer belt equipped with a tramp iron metal detector. The transfer belt discharges to a 60 in. (1. 52 m) conveyor which conveys the ore about 3,000 ft (914 m) to the 475,000 ton ore storage pile located near the concentrator. Four 48 in. (1.22 m) pan feeders transfer the ore to the mill feed conveyors, which in turn supply the two 32 ft by 15 ft (9. 75 m by 4. 57 m) semi-autogenous mills, which easily accept the 10 in. (254 mm) product of the crusher. Each semi- autogenous mill is followed by a secondary ball mill. The unusually large open side setting of the crusher accounts for its 6,300 tph maximum capacity. Concentrator capacity is now 48,000 tpd. Eccentric removal is eased by the design of the door to the crushed ore pocket, which has the cart rails mounted on its outer surface and is lowered to a horizontal position in the pocket by an electric winch. The top of the door rests on wear bar covered concrete piers in the pocket. Another feature is a chute through the floor at the crusher base that extends into the crushed ore pocket. Dust and spills of ore on that floor during crusher repairs are easily swept into the crushed ore pocket. This feature is also used at Bougainville and Palabora and has been added to others after operation has commenced. The design follows the concrete rectangular box concept with four main service and maintenance levels shown in the sectional drawings, although a third additional section has been added at the maintenance

Jan 1, 1978

By B. Blumenthal

THE present investigation was planned as a survey of the lead-rich portion of the ternary lead-antimony-silver system by thermal analysis. Since, however, a rigorous application of the conventional thermal analytical method is time consuming, an attempt was made to speed up the investigation by reducing the time required for a single thermal analysis. This was done by increasing the rate of cooling to 12° to 18°C. per minute. Since such a rate does not permit even an approach to equilibrium conditions, the melt was stirred vigorously by a stirrer operating at the high rate of 665 r.p.m. This proved to be effective in obtaining cooling curves with distinct points of arrest and of excellent reproducibility, which satisfactorily compare with those obtained at a rate of 1° to 2°C. per min. with or without slow stirring (Fig. 1). By this method the lead-rich end of the lead-antimony system and a series of ternary alloys in sections parallel to the lead-antimony side of the ternary system were investigated and it was observed that the two branches of the' liquidus curve of the .binary alloys did not intersect at the eutectic temperature. An equivalent effect was observed in the ternary system. The eutectic temperature of the binary lead-antimony system was found to be 252.0°C., which confirms the recent investigation by Pellini and Rhines,1 who determined the eutectic temperature to be 251.5°C. The observation that the curves of primary crystallization of the lead-antimony system do not intersect at the eutectic temperature was previously made by Dean.2 Dean explains the phenomenon by assuming the existence of a compound Sb4Pb. He felt that super-cooling was not the cause of the phenomena because he was unable to influence them by inoculation. The X-ray investigation by Solomon and Morris-Jones,3. the metallographic investigations by Stead,4 Charpy,5 Gontermann,6 and Dean, Zickrick and Nix,7 and the numerous investigations of physical properties, definitely disprove the occurrence of any compound. The work of Dean was not confirmed by Broniewski and Sliwoski,8 whose experiments did not show any irregularity and who report a eutectic composition of 13 per cent antimony and a eutectic temperature of 250° to 252°C. at a rate of cooling of about 6°C. per min. Abel, Redlich and Adler9 then report a eutectic composition of 12.1 per cent upon reviewing the previous, publications and adding a few of their own cooling curves. In 1934 Quadrat and Jiriste10 found from careful analyses of the bottom portion of slowly cooled hypereutectic melts that the eutectic contains only 11,4 to 11.5 per cent antimony. (Previous analyses by Stead4 in 1881 gave 13 per cent:) Weaver," however, reported in 1935 that cooling curves indi-

Jan 1, 1943

By H. R. Peiffer

The increase in electrical resistivity, ?pT,at 78°K was measured as a function of elongation, E, at 78°K for a 2 pct (approximately) by weight finely divided alumina in silver material. The amount of increase in electrical resistivity (?pT) is a function of the amount of alumina present and can be represented by: ?pT = cen where c and n are constants. The constant c increases and the exponent n decreases with increasing alumina content. Approximately 33 pct of the resistivity increase is recovered upon annealing at room temperature. RECENTLY, dispersed phase alloys' have shown promise for use at elevated temperatures. These materials have a high creep resistance, a high-temperature strength considerably above that of the pure matrix, and a high electrical conductivity. These materials also show other properties such as retardation of re crystallization and resistance to flow even above the melting point of the matrix.' It is believed that high-temperature creep is retarded in these materials because the dispersed phase blocks the motion of dislocations. According to schoeck3 and also Weertman,4 the rate controlling process is the climb of dislocations around the dispersed phase particles. Any mechanical property of these materials, or any other material for that matter, can be explained on the basis of defect structures and their interrelations. It would certainly be interesting to learn something about the effect of a dispersed phase on dislocation densities and also their effect on point defect concentrations following cold work. This is the purpose of the research discussed herein. The method used was the measurement of the electrical resistivity as a function of elongation at low temperatures. This scheme has already been applied to the studies of pure metals.5 Electrical resistivity measurements conducted on pure metals such as copper, silver, gold, and so forth, have indicated that defects such as vacancies and dislocations are formed during deformation.5 It has been shown by van Bueren6 that the resistivity change, ?p, should increase with elongation, E, according to the following relation: Ap=Al/2 + B£3/2 where A and B are constants of the system; ?p is in µ? cm. The first term refers to the amount of resistivity change associated with line defects and the second term with the change associated with point defects. A later calculation yielded exponents of 3/4 and 5/4, respectively.6 Manintveld7 has shown that the resistivity of copper increases with strain according to a 3/2 power law, whereas van Bueren has shown that the resistivity of silver increases according to a 5/4 power law. Assuming then that van Bueren's calculations are correct, it appears that line defects contribute very little to the electrical resistivity. There is some doubt, however, as to the validity of van Bueren's expressions for all cubic metals.' In fact, the data on copper and silver are not conclusive. In this in-

Jan 1, 1962

By E. O. Kirkendall

The investigation reported herein was undertaken to obtain data to supplement those presented in an earlier paper,l particularly for longer times at a higher temperature. This information may further develop our knowledge of the mechanism of diffusion in substitutional solid solutions. Diffusion of solute atoms interstitially dissolved is not difficult to visualize: it can take place without much disturbance of the solvent atoms. The mechanism of diffusion of solute atoms substitutionally dissolved is not so easily understood. Many theories have been advanced. Rosen-hain,2,3 Frenkel,4 Smekal,5 Langmuir,3,6 Steigman, Shockley and Nix,' and Johnson8 all proposed theories to explain diffusion. Langmuir's proposed mechanism consisted of a simple cyclic interchange of atoms involving an interchange in lattice positions of four or more atoms. This mechanism, accepted by the author at the time of his previous publication,1 and apparently quite generally accepted, required a net exchange in positions of both solute and solvent atoms in equal numbers. In other words, the rate of diffusion of the solvent and solute atoms would be the same. That this cyclic interchange in lattice positions of solute and solvent atoms in equal numbers is the only true mechanism of diffusion is denied by the evidence presented in this paper. Experimental Procedure This modification of similar procedure1 will be outlined briefly. The method consisted of the following steps: I. A pure Muntz metal (60.6 per cent Cu, 0.1 per cent total impurities) that was almost all beta brass at 780°C. was chosen. 2. The brass was turned between centers in a lathe to a diameter of 0.5965 inches. 3. After the brass was cleaned, it was electroplated with pure copper to a diameter of about one inch. 4. The sample was heated slowly to 400°C. under reduced pressure and held at that temperature for 4 hr. to remove occluded gases. It was then cooled to room temperature. 5. The sample was heated to 780°C. ± 3°C. and held at that temperature for different lengths of time; then quenched. Samples were cut off each time after quenching. Metallographic samples 1/4 in. thick were removed at I hr., 6 hr., 24 hr., 96 hr. and 701 hr. After 96 and 701 hr. samples of about I in. were removed for X-ray analysis. 6. The metallographic samples were polished on the cross section and photomicrographs were taken. 7. The I-in. samples were polished and etched on both ends. With the aid of a microscope each was carefully mounted in a four-jaw chuck in a lathe, so that they could be accurately bored for an arbor. 8. Turnings were taken for each X-ray sample. After each set of turnings, the sample was heated in an oil bath for about 1/2 hr. at 300°C. It was then etched in 25

Jan 1, 1942

By E. O. Kirkendall

The investigation reported herein was undertaken to obtain data to supplement those presented in an earlier paper,l particularly for longer times at a higher temperature. This information may further develop our knowledge of the mechanism of diffusion in substitutional solid solutions. Diffusion of solute atoms interstitially dissolved is not difficult to visualize: it can take place without much disturbance of the solvent atoms. The mechanism of diffusion of solute atoms substitutionally dissolved is not so easily understood. Many theories have been advanced. Rosen-hain,2,3 Frenkel,4 Smekal,5 Langmuir,3,6 Steigman, Shockley and Nix,' and Johnson8 all proposed theories to explain diffusion. Langmuir's proposed mechanism consisted of a simple cyclic interchange of atoms involving an interchange in lattice positions of four or more atoms. This mechanism, accepted by the author at the time of his previous publication,1 and apparently quite generally accepted, required a net exchange in positions of both solute and solvent atoms in equal numbers. In other words, the rate of diffusion of the solvent and solute atoms would be the same. That this cyclic interchange in lattice positions of solute and solvent atoms in equal numbers is the only true mechanism of diffusion is denied by the evidence presented in this paper. Experimental Procedure This modification of similar procedure1 will be outlined briefly. The method consisted of the following steps: I. A pure Muntz metal (60.6 per cent Cu, 0.1 per cent total impurities) that was almost all beta brass at 780°C. was chosen. 2. The brass was turned between centers in a lathe to a diameter of 0.5965 inches. 3. After the brass was cleaned, it was electroplated with pure copper to a diameter of about one inch. 4. The sample was heated slowly to 400°C. under reduced pressure and held at that temperature for 4 hr. to remove occluded gases. It was then cooled to room temperature. 5. The sample was heated to 780°C. ± 3°C. and held at that temperature for different lengths of time; then quenched. Samples were cut off each time after quenching. Metallographic samples 1/4 in. thick were removed at I hr., 6 hr., 24 hr., 96 hr. and 701 hr. After 96 and 701 hr. samples of about I in. were removed for X-ray analysis. 6. The metallographic samples were polished on the cross section and photomicrographs were taken. 7. The I-in. samples were polished and etched on both ends. With the aid of a microscope each was carefully mounted in a four-jaw chuck in a lathe, so that they could be accurately bored for an arbor. 8. Turnings were taken for each X-ray sample. After each set of turnings, the sample was heated in an oil bath for about 1/2 hr. at 300°C. It was then etched in 25

Jan 1, 1942

By Walter R. Hibbard, Harold Margolin

The effect of ten ternary additions on the aging of a Cu-Ag alloy was measured by X ray, microstructure and hardness. A supersaturated copper-rich transition structure was found. The effect of the ternary element was related to differences between transition and precipitate lattice parameters and analogies with solution and strain hardening. IN addition to the prerequisite of diminishing solid solubility with falling temperature, the theory of coherency hardening1 proposes that the principal source of hardening during precipitation is strain caused by coherency between the matrix and precipitate. For a given system greater coherency hardening would result from lengthening the period of coherent growth and/or increasing the number of nuclei, other things remaining equal. However, the hardness change during aging is a function of a number of phenomena in addition to coherency hardening, such as dispersion hardening, loss of coherency, solute depletion, matrix recovery or recrystal-lization, coalescence, and their relative time sequences. The present investigation was undertaken to study the effect of ternary additions on the age-hardening of Cu-Ag alloy. For this purpose a series of alloys were made containing as ternary constituents Mg, Al, Si, P, Mn, Ni, Zn, As, In, and Sb. These elements were added to a master 5 wt pct Ag in Cu alloy in such amounts as to obtain alloys listed in Table II containing the following approximate atomic percentages: 96 pct Cu, 3 pct Ag, 1 pct ternary addition. A 97 atomic pct Cu, 3 atomic pct Ag alloy was used as a comparison standard. There have been numerous investigations of age-hardening in Cu-Ag alloys2-lo but few of ternary Cu-Ag alloys. Pfister and Weist" found that 1 wt pct Ni reduced the solubility of Ag in Cu above 600 °C and that the rate of precipitation was slower than in polycrystalline Cu-Ag alloys of similar silver content. More recently Hodge, Jaffee, Dunleavy, and Ogden12 investigated the effect of ternary additions of Mg, Li, P, Cd, Zn, Zr and Be on strength properties of Cu-Ag alloys. Mg, Cd, and P were found to increase strength in the aged and cold-worked condition. Experimental Procedure Charges weighing 7.5 lb were melted in a closed carbon crucible under a reducing atmosphere* of nitrogen and hydrogen. A Durville-type casting procedure with a hot-top arrangement was used to obtain a sound casting, 2x2x43/4 in. Prior to rolling and annealing of the ingots, a trial solution anneal of rolled sections of the hot-top portions indicated that at 780°C melting was avoided except for the Cu-Ag-Sb alloy. This alloy could not be produced as a single phase within the limits of temperature control. i 3" to 5oC, since melting occurred at 64O °C, and below this temperature precipitation was

Jan 1, 1952

By L. C. Brown, J. S. Kirkaldy

AS part of a program to investigate the diffusive properties of dilute ternary austenites, we have made a determination of the effects of cobalt on the activity of carbon in y iron. Samples of pure iron and Fe-Co alloys were equilibrated at 1000°C in controlled CO-C02 atmospheres, following the procedure of R. P. smith.' The 0.010-in.-thick samples were analyzed for carbon by microcombustion analysis2 to give a set of isoactivity curves. The latter were converted to activity-coefficient (standard state at infinite dilution) plots by combination with Smith's data' for the activity of carbon in pure iron measured in a CO-C02 mixture. Table I shows the composition of the base alloys used, while Fig. 1 shows the experimental results superimposed on a set of curves generated by the relation In the notation of Wagner,' the interaction parameter is the second coefficient on the right, Eq. [I] adequately correlates the experimental points for those alloys which were prepared from electrolytic iron by arc-melting (2,4, and 7 pct Co). The results for the 10 pct Co alloy (supplied by Crucible Steel Co.) do not correlate with the others. In fact, the experimental points for this alloy correspond to an interaction parameter of It is possible that the interaction parameter is a function of concentration for large cobalt additions, but we are inclined to attribute the discrepancy to the presence of a significant amount of aluminum added to this alloy for deoxidation purposes (Table I). Preliminary measurements for the system Fe-C-A1 have indicated an interaction parameter of Which implies that the effect of aluminum in solution on the carbon activity is sixty times greater than the effect of an equal weight percentage of cobalt. These observations cast some doubt on the precision of the results of Chandhok, Hirth, and Dulis who used this same 10 pct alloy for their experiments, obtaining an interaction parameter of E = 2.2. There is considerable doubt as to the activity of a plane Fe-C system. Using a CH4-Ha mixture, Smith obtains cg = 6.1 for the effect of carbon on the activity of carbon in austenite, rather than the value of 8.9 given in Eq. [I]. The use of CHa-Ha mixtures has recently been questioned by Kaufman, Radcliff, and cohens who state that there is some possibility that other hydrocarbons are formed. Fortunately, the determination of the interaction parameter is not sensitive to the coefficient of Nc. For example, using the CHI-H2 results we obtain a value which is almost the same as that obtained using the CO-CO, results. The authors wish to thank Mr. E. J. Dulis of the Crucible Steel Co. of America for supplying us with samples of the 10 pct Co alloy used in their original work. Financial assistance from the American Iron and Steel Institute is gratefully acknowledged.

Jan 1, 1963

By E. C. Wright

THE bessemer process is nearly one hundred years old. William Kelly, the American inventor, was able to demonstrate that he had accomplished the pneumatic purification of molten pig iron as early as 1847; Henry Bessemer's English patent was granted in 1855. The application of this steelmaking process since then and the present position of bessemer steel are concisely discussed on pages 355 and 356 of the fifth. edition of "The . Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel." The great expansion of the automotive, machine-tool, chemical and oil industries after 1910 opened up a large market for special steels, whereas the output of steel before that time was mainly for structural purposes. The need for building more blast-furnace capacity complementary to bessemer operations, combined with the availability of the necessary amounts of steel scrap, both contributed to the extension of open-hearth plants at the expense of bessemer capacity. The ability of the open-hearth furnaces to consume virtually all types of raw materials as far as phosphorus content is concerned, and the need for selecting low-phosphorus ores of rapidly decreasing sources for the bessemer, also played a part in the reduction of bessemer steelmaking operations and the increase in basic open-hearth plants. As a consequence, the proportion of bessemer steel made in this country decreased from 65.7 per cent of the total in 1900 to 37.1 per cent in 1910, and only 6.8 per cent of the total in 1937. The metallurgical concepts existent between 1910 and 1920 caused the writing of many specifications of very low phosphorus and sulphur content, which definitely barred bessemer steel from many commodities. Now sulphur is being added to many open-hearth and bessemer steels in amounts far exceeding the maximum sulphur content of good bessemer steel. Rephosphorizing is also widely practiced for several specific applications. Even today, the chemical-analysis limits of many important steel specifications have an arbitrary and archaic tinge. The old standard "0.30 .to 0.60 per cent manganese" might be mentioned in this connection as similar to the rigid requirements for maximum sulphur and phosphorus that were established at least 25 years ago. The literature is full of vague and complex discussions of the effects of nitrogen and oxygen where these elements existed in steel in amounts less than 0.02 per cent. Many failures have been attributed to these elements without reasonable proof on which to base the conclusion. Methods of determining oxygen in steel require such complicated equipment that only a few research laboratories have the required apparatus. Even so, the accuracy of oxygen determinations in steel has been only recently reproducible. Up to the present time, no one has succeeded in obtaining a sample of molten steel that accurately indicates the full. oxygen content of the metal in the furnace or ladle because the molten sample

Jan 1, 1944

US 4,137,751-Aerial geophysical exploration for ore deposits by collecting and analyzing atmospheric particulates The aircraft has an Inlet duct extending outward and including a "shave-off" duct, a cyclone separator located inside the cabin which is coupled to the inlet duct, a clean air exhaust duct, and a receiver for the collected particles incoming air is divided into two fractions. The fraction taken by the "shave-off" duct and containing the bulk of the particles is routed to the cyclone Particulates are gathered on a collector tape for subsequent analysis and correlation with the areas covered J. R Rhodes, R D. Sieberg, M. C Taylor, J. C Westkaemper, and R C. Young, assigned to Columbia Scientific Industries, Inc Feb. 6, 1979 7 pp. (73-28) Filed- 2-28-75 (554,114) Same British 1,446,760, dated Aug. 18, 1976. US 4,156,138-Exploration for subsurface deposits of uranium ore Pairs of dosimeters are placed underground in a grid pattern Each dosimeter contains a phosphor which IS capable of storing the energy of alpha particles. One dosimeter is heavily shielded from alpha particles, while the other in the pair is thinly shielded to exclude dust After a period underground the dosimeters are heated to release the stored energy as light. The amount of light produced from the heavily shielded dosimeter is subtracted from the amount of light produced from the thinly shielded dosimeter to give an indication of the location and quantity of uranium underground This patent is a division of US Patent No 4,053,772, dated Oct 11, 1977 P E Felice, assigned to Westinghouse Electric Corp May 22, 1979 5 pp (250-253) Filed. 8-12-77 (824,203) US 4,180,727-Method for measuring the gamma-gamma density of uranium ore in the vicinity of a borehole A first gamma-ray detector receives only natural gamma rays from the borehole, while a second receives both natural gamma rays and scattered uranium-source gamma rays The value of the uranium-source gamma rays is calculated. W W Givens, assigned to Mob11 011 Corp Dec 25, 1979 6 pp (250- 264) Filed 10-20-77 (843,909) US 4,180,72&A neutron activation probe for determining the location and grade of uranium ore, especially where thorium or other fissionable isotopes are present, includes a pulsed neutron source in series with a plurality of delayed neutron reactors for measuring radioactivity in a well bore- hole together with a Nal(T1) counter for measuring the high energy 2 62 MeV gamma line from thorium The signal from the Nal(T1) counter IS subtracted from the signal from the delayed source detectors to ascertain the amount of uranium present in the ore body N. P Goldstein and R C Smith, assigned to Westinghouse Electric Corp Dec 25,1979 6 pp (250-264) Filed. 4-1 1-78 (895,323)

Jan 1, 1980

During the past 60 or 90 days, the metropolitan newspapers have published much concerning unemployment throughout the nation and the efforts of the Army and various other bureaus for finding work for the returning soldiers. The United States Employment Service has 2000 bureaus throughout the country, which Nathan A. Smyth, Assistant Federal Director, states have placed more than 2,400,000 persons in employment. The Engineering Societies Employment Bureau, which, since December, 1918, has been endeavoring to put all returning engineers in touch with employers who need efficient men, has produced results that are very gratifying to the Secretaries of the four Founder Societies under whose direct management the Bureau operates. During this period, 1615 men have registered at the Bureau's office in the Engineering Societies Building; not all of these, however, are unemployed. Many are ex-army and navy men, who in passing through New York on their way home, look over the field in the hope of making a change for their own benefit before returning to their former positions. During this period, 427 positions vacant have been filed, 2300 of which positions have been filled from the men registered. The letters mailed by this Bureau amount to about 1000 a month and the number of personal calls at the office, 1600. The lowest number of positions filled has been in mining, but the lowest number of registrations is also from mining men. While in February idleness throughout the nation was increasing at the rate of 35,000 a week, under date of Mar. 7, Arthur Woods, a special assistant to Secretary of War Baker, states that there is a material improvement in the unemployment situation and that the problem is no longer a serious one. It is recognized that' the improvement wrought in each individual by his military training and experience has so increased his value that it is 'not only unfair, to ask these men to accept their old jobs at the old wages, but it is probably very unlikely that they will be willing to do so. This plain statement of improvement may not carry conviction to everyone but a concrete example will show its validity. Take the example of a young man under 21, bright and intelligent, with only a high-school education who was employed, before being drafted, on purely manual labor. He shows up well under military training and is made a corporal; he makes good and is appointed a sergeant; and finally becomes top sergeant, which requires him in many ways to handle the entire company of 250 men. The result is; even if he has not been tried by the fire of battle, he comes out of the army with a feeling of self-confidence and capacity that was entirely lacking when he went in and he has had actual experience in handling a larger body of men than the average mine foreman at twice his age, and he has had twice the average amount of detail work to take care of.

Jan 4, 1919

By Kenneth C. Vincent, A. M. Gaudin

TEN years ago Taggart, Taylor and Ince1 described a workable, convenient apparatus for the measurement of contact angles between cleaved, ground or polished particles and captive bubbles. Wark and Cox2 and Wark and Sutherland3 have done an immense amount of experimental work with this apparatus. Their work has had as principal object the determination of "contact curves." Contact curves are cartesian charts in which pH (or some other variable) is plotted against quantity of modifying agent. The rectangular area is broken into two or more curvilinear areas separated by the contact curve. The curve indicates that a sharp demarcation exists between conditions that bring about sticking of particles to bubbles and conditions that do not produce sticking. The type curve appears in the TRANSACTIONS as Fig. 1, page 248, volume 112. Wark and Cox offer data to show that the contact angle has a value determined by and characteristic of the agent used. Wark and Cox also make the statement that they believe this value is independent of concentration (ref. 2a, p. 209). They say: It is suspected that, given sufficient time and provided that there are no disturbing factors, the full ethyl xanthate angle (corresponding to a complete xanthate film) would be obtained in every case where contact occurs. Such a conclusion, if correct, would tend to substantiate the hypothesis of flotation collection by metathesis championed by Taggart and his associates4-8 and would argue against the adsorption hypothesis now adopted by Wark7 and by one of us.8 However, the data of Wark and Cox do not bear out the conclusion that there is a sharp passage from conditions of contact to conditions of noncontact. Rather, they indicate the existence of a transition zone of reagent concentration across which the contact angle varies with changes in reagent concentration from zero to a value near the maximum. This may be seen, for example, from Fig. 195 in the new text by one of us (ref. 8, p. 380), which presents the data of Wark and Cox in graphical form. The object of this study has been to explore the nature of the transition from conditions of contact to conditions of noncontact. The data of Wark and Cox to which reference has been made as showing that a gradual transition exists are marred by the fact that the region of critical-agent concentration is at an extremely small concentration. This condition suggests that diffusion may have played such a preponderant role that equilibrium was not reached within the time alloted. In the Wark and Cox data, the critical concentration was at about one part of xanthate per million parts of water. To form a monolayer of xanthate on the mineral surface would therefore require depletion of xanthate in the liquid to a depth of the order of

Jan 1, 1940

By N. A. Tiner

A study was made of the effects of temperature, type of loading, and electric polarization on the fracturing behavior of copper and zinc coated with mercury. Copper showed an em-brittlement only in cyclic loading, whereas zinc showed an em-brittlenzent in both static and cyclic loading. The embrittle-ment of zinc in static loading was prevented by sub-zero cooling to a temperatzcre of about -70°F. The emhrittlement of both metals was sliglztly reduced by cathodic polarization of mercury. The basic processes involved in fracturing were discussed in the light of these observations. When a solid metal is in contact with certain liquid metals possessing high wetting characteristics, a weakening effect is produced, and the solid metal fractures in brittle manner at a relatively low stress. This lowering of the fracture stress generally is considered different from the stress cracking caused by a corrosive liquid environment and is attributed to the lowering of the solid-liquid interface tension at the grain boundaries.1-4 The purpose of this paper is to describe a number of observations on the special features of fracturing of copper and zinc coated with a liquid mercury film, and to analyze the basic processes involved in fracturing in the light of these observations. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS I) Effect of Type of Loading—The evidence appears to indicate that in static loading, metals usually fracture by the initiation of microcracks in the interior preferentially at the grain boundaries or at the intersection of slip bands.' In cyclic loading, cracks develop on the surface within the active slip zones, and gradually propagate with increasing num- ber of cycles.6'7 Because of this difference in the manner of initiation of cracks, a series of bare and mercury coated copper and zinc specimens was subjected to static and cyclic loading, and their fracturing behavior was examined. The specimens were machined to 0.25 in. in diam and 1 in. in length from a high-purity commercial bar stock, and annealed at an appropriate temperature. Mercury was applied to the surface of the specimens by rubbing with cotton wool soaked in a saturated solution of HgCl2 or by etching with a dilute solution of HC1 and rubbing with purified mercury and by washing in water. The static tension load-extension curves were obtained by means of a Riele Screw Power Universal Testing Machine. The room-temperature load-extension curves for copper and zinc are shown in Fig. 1. The deformation behavior of copper, as judged from the general configuration of the load-extension curve, was not affected by mercury coating. The maximum load to fracture and the elongation at the maximum load were practically the same for both specimens. The mercury coated copper, however, showed somewhat less localized necking and had smaller reduction of area than the uncoated metal. The behavior of mercury coated zinc was radically different from the behavior of uncoated metal. The load-extension curves were the same at the

Jan 1, 1962

By Hugh H. Waesche

High quality quartz crystals weighing more than 50 grams are required in several important industrial applications.30,31 Primarily, they are the basic raw material for precision, electronic, frequency control components; this includes oscillators and filters in both radio and telephone services. Quartz crystals are also necessary for optical lenses and prisms in special applications requiring high ultraviolet light-transmission as in spectrographs. Quartz wedges are regular components for petrographic microscopes. The application of crystalline quartz as a transducer* in ultrasonic devices has increased in recent years despite strong competition from barium titanate and magnetostrictive [f] devices. Some quartz is fabricated into delay lines for radar. Man has valued quartz for fabrication of art objects since the dawn of history. The art forms were and are painstakingly carved and polished to form intricate figurines, bowls, statuettes, and the well-known crystal balls. The largest known ball, made of perfect quartz from Burma, is now in the National Museum in Washington. It is 12 7/8 in. in diameter and weighs 106 lb 12 oz. Clear, pure quartz chips and small crystals not meeting the electronic-grade dimensional requirements are known by the Brazilian term lasca. They are used to produce fused quartz having wide application in laboratory equipment, as special glasses, for torsion suspension in scientific instruments, and as a source material for growing large artificial quartz crystals 18,35 Electronic applications far exceed all other uses in importance so any discussion of high-quality quartz crystals must be concerned almost exclusively with those functions. Historical Background Because of their ubiquitous character and natural beauty, quartz crystals have long been of interest and known to man. They have been found among early Egyptian and Chinese art forms and the Sumerians are believed to have fashioned seals, beads, and other jewelry from quartz crystals, perhaps 5,000 years ago. Also, American Indians made arrow heads and fashioned some simple objects of different kinds. The origin of the name quartz, although of Greek derivation, is uncertain. The Greeks appropriately applied their word for frozen water or ice, krustallos, to quartz. The present-day, large-scale practical applications of quartz crystals began in 1880-1881 when Pierre and Jacques Curie reported discovery of the "piezoelectric" effect. They found this effect first in Rochelle salt, a common product of grape-wine refineries, while studying crystal symmetry. Piezoelectricity is that property found in certain crystals, including quartz, whereby electrical charges of equal and opposite sign appear on opposite parts of the crystals when they are stressed. If equal and opposite forces are applied to two opposing prism edges of a single untwinned quartz crystal a positive electrical charge will appear on one edge and a negative charge on the other. The amount of the charges will be directly proportional to the force applied. This property seems to be intimately related to pyroelectricity

Jan 1, 1960

By J. D. Sullivan, Chester R. Austin, J. L. Nunes

IT is characteristic of most shales and surface clays that a bloated or vesicular structure is produced by burning to a sufficiently high temperature, usually about 150° to 200°F. above the normal maturing temperature used when making common brick of the same material. Early investigators recognized this phenomenon and attributed it to the release or expansion of gases in the vitrified piece. A number of theories have been advanced on the source of the gas and the manner in which it is evolved, but none has been proved conclusively. T. E. Jackson's1 early theory that bloating was due to oxygen evolved by ferric oxide in forming ferrous oxide or ferrous silicate was never substantiated by experimental work. Orton2 thought this explanation unlikely, as all clays should bloat at the same temperature, if this were true. He found that clays bloated in the range from 1100° to 1706°C. Also, many clays containing iron did not bloat at all, but fused. Orton also stated that oxidation of different types of carbon was a source of gas during burning of clay and should be expelled before vitrification was reached. Seger3 said that he had dissolved ferric oxide in glass with no apparent evolution of gas. Matson4 came to the conclusion that ferruginous days burned to vitrification in an oxidizing atmosphere did not have the iron in a ferrous form. According to Wilson,5 the gases responsible for bloating might be entrapped air, water, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxygen, and hydrocarbons. He spoke of two causes of bloating: (I) incomplete oxidation below the vitrification temperature, and (2) decomposition of compounds and evolution of gases above the vitrification temperature. Decomposition of calcium sulphate was given as the principal example of the latter. Bleininger and Montgomery6 stated that if any time after vitrification began the evolution of gaseous matter was rapid enough so that pressure was produced within the day, bloating was certain to take place, and a vesicular structure would be formed. They recognized that initial structure, rate of heating, kiln atmosphere, and many other variables affected bloating. Work done by the Emergency Fleet Corporation7 indicated that clays suitable for bloating should be high in compounds of metallic oxides, carbon, sulphur, sodium, potassium, or other equivalent compounds, which either act as a flux or give off gas. Orton2 studied the chemical status of the carbon, iron, and sulphur in clays during various stages of burning, using a Huron shale that bloated under oxidizing or reducing conditions. He found that only a small amount of sulphur remained in the clay and that it could be detected only by dissolving the clay in hydrofluoric acid; i.e., the sulphur was in combination with the silica. Orton said that this sulphur was probably in the form of iron sulphide dissolved in the glass phase. The iron sulphide was not broken down by heating, but was dissolved in the basic slag or glass,

Jan 1, 1942

By Theron Wasson

The year 1942 in Michigan was devoted largely to the development of fields discovered in 1941 but was also characterized by a great increase in prospecting for new productive horizons below the Dundee limestone. Some new fields were discovered but as yet these have shown few signs of being of major importance. Michigan's total production for 1942, of 21,754,000 bbl. of oil, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Mines, was second only to the record year of 1939 when 22,799,000 bbl. of oil were produced. All important fields were prorated throughout the year, and it is obvious that without proration a new all-time high would have been established for the state this year. From 1925 to the end of 1942, Michigan has produced annually the following amounts of oil: Year Barrels Source 1925 4,000 1926 94,000 1927 435,000 1928 592,000 1929 4,641,000 1929 Michigan Geological Survey 1930 3,928,000 3,785,000 1932 6,925,000 1933 7,942,000 1934 0,603,000 1935 15,776,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1937 1936 11,928,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1937 16,628,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1939 1938 19,211,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1939 22,799,000 1940 19,764,000 1941 16,361,000 1942 21,754,000 Total 183,170,000 This tabulation shows the steady growth of the industry in Michigan since the first discovery of oil in 1925. Maes A map of the oil and gas fields of Michigan in 1941, published in the report for 1942, shows the main producing areas and should be referred to if information in regard to their location is desired.* The main producing zones were shown in the columnar section in the same publication. Development in Fields Reed City Field.—During 1942 the Reed City field, which ended 1941 with 112 producing oil wells, added 70 new producers to bring the total at the end of the year to 182 wells and 4700 proven acres. A south extension of the field developed during the year was in large part responsible for the increase. Approximately 9,000,000 bbl. of oil was produced from the field during the year, bringing the total accumulated production to the end of the year to roughly 11,750,000 barrels. Headquarters Field.—The Headquarters field, which started the year with ro producing oil wells, ended the year with 41 wells aid 1240 proven acres. Approximately 2,300,000 bbl. of oil was produced in 1942. Kawkawlin Field.—Although not a 1941 discovery, the Kawkawlin field has been actively developed on the 40-acre spacing plan during the last year, 42 producers having been completed, bringing the total number of wells at the end of the year to 77. Nearly 500,000 bbl. of oil was produced during the year.

Jan 1, 1943

By Theron Wasson

The year 1942 in Michigan was devoted largely to the development of fields discovered in 1941 but was also characterized by a great increase in prospecting for new productive horizons below the Dundee limestone. Some new fields were discovered but as yet these have shown few signs of being of major importance. Michigan's total production for 1942, of 21,754,000 bbl. of oil, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Mines, was second only to the record year of 1939 when 22,799,000 bbl. of oil were produced. All important fields were prorated throughout the year, and it is obvious that without proration a new all-time high would have been established for the state this year. From 1925 to the end of 1942, Michigan has produced annually the following amounts of oil: Year Barrels Source 1925 4,000 1926 94,000 1927 435,000 1928 592,000 1929 4,641,000 1929 Michigan Geological Survey 1930 3,928,000 3,785,000 1932 6,925,000 1933 7,942,000 1934 0,603,000 1935 15,776,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1937 1936 11,928,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1937 16,628,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1939 1938 19,211,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1939 22,799,000 1940 19,764,000 1941 16,361,000 1942 21,754,000 Total 183,170,000 This tabulation shows the steady growth of the industry in Michigan since the first discovery of oil in 1925. Maes A map of the oil and gas fields of Michigan in 1941, published in the report for 1942, shows the main producing areas and should be referred to if information in regard to their location is desired.* The main producing zones were shown in the columnar section in the same publication. Development in Fields Reed City Field.—During 1942 the Reed City field, which ended 1941 with 112 producing oil wells, added 70 new producers to bring the total at the end of the year to 182 wells and 4700 proven acres. A south extension of the field developed during the year was in large part responsible for the increase. Approximately 9,000,000 bbl. of oil was produced from the field during the year, bringing the total accumulated production to the end of the year to roughly 11,750,000 barrels. Headquarters Field.—The Headquarters field, which started the year with ro producing oil wells, ended the year with 41 wells aid 1240 proven acres. Approximately 2,300,000 bbl. of oil was produced in 1942. Kawkawlin Field.—Although not a 1941 discovery, the Kawkawlin field has been actively developed on the 40-acre spacing plan during the last year, 42 producers having been completed, bringing the total number of wells at the end of the year to 77. Nearly 500,000 bbl. of oil was produced during the year.

Jan 1, 1943

By J. D. Sullivan, Chester R. Austin, J. L. Nunes

IT is characteristic of most shales and surface clays that a bloated or vesicular structure is produced by burning to a sufficiently high temperature, usually about 150° to 200°F. above the normal maturing temperature used when making common brick of the same material. Early investigators recognized this phenomenon and attributed it to the release or expansion of gases in the vitrified piece. A number of theories have been advanced on the source of the gas and the manner in which it is evolved, but none has been proved conclusively. T. E. Jackson's1 early theory that bloating was due to oxygen evolved by ferric oxide in forming ferrous oxide or ferrous silicate was never substantiated by experimental work. Orton2 thought this explanation unlikely, as all clays should bloat at the same temperature, if this were true. He found that clays bloated in the range from 1100° to I700°C. Also, many clays containing iron did not bloat at all, but fused. Orton also stated that oxidation of different types of carbon was a source of gas during burning of clay and should be expelled before vitrification was reached. Seger3 said that he had dissolved ferric oxide in glass with no apparent evolution of gas. Matson4 came to the conclusion that ferruginous clays burned to vitrification in an oxidizing atmosphere did not have the iron in a ferrous form. According to Wilson,5 the gases responsible for bloating might be entrapped air, water, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxygen, and hydrocarbons. He spoke of two causes of bloating: (I) incomplete oxidation below the vitrification temperature, and (2) decomposition of compounds and evolution of gases above the vitrification temperature. Decomposition of calcium sulphate was given as the principal example of the latter. Bleininger and Montgomery6 stated that if any time after vitrification began the evolution of gaseous matter was rapid enough so that pressure was produced within the clay, bloating was certain to take place, and a vesicular structure would be formed. They recognized that initial structure, rate of heating, kiln atmosphere, and many other variables affected bloating. Work done by the Emergency Fleet Corporation7 indicated that clays suitable for bloating should be high in compounds of metallic oxides, carbon, sulphur, sodium, potassium, or other equivalent compounds, which either act as a flux or give off gas. Orton2 studied the chemical status of the carbon, iron, and sulphur in clays during various stages of burning, using a Huron shale that bloated under oxidizing or reducing conditions. He found that only a small amount of sulphur remained in the clay and that it could be detected only by dissolving the clay in hydrofluoric acid,i.e., the sulphur was in combination with the silica. Orton said that this sulphur was probably in the form of iron sulphide dissolved in the glass phase. The iron sulphide was not broken down by heating, but was dissolved in the basic slag or glass,

Jan 1, 1942

By T. Saburi, C. M. Wayman

The massive and martensitic transformations in ß Cu-Ga alloys were studied by optical microscopy and by transmission electron microscopy and diffraction. These types of transformation are distinct and do not merge into one another. An internal fine structure due to stacking faults was found in both the massive phase (m) and the martensite, but the origin of the faults is believed to be different in each case. The faults in the martensite are due to the lattice invariant or "second" shear of the phenom-enological theory, while those in the are probably growth faults and deformation faults arising from the transformation volume change. Evidence is presented for ordering in the ß phase prior to transformation into martensite, and the crystal structures of and ß' and ßi martensites are discussed. THE results from some previous investigations1,2 have led to the suggestion that martensitic and massive transformations have certain common characteristics. It presently seems established that massive transformations like martensitic transformations are essentially diffusionless,1,2 but unlike martensitic transformations, when a new phase forms massively there is no shape change or surface relief.= If the massive-type transformation is crystallographically similar to martensitic transformations, one would expect a fine structure as a result of the lattice invariant shear4 which is a part of the transformation mechanism. The existence of such a fine structure (i.e., slip, twinning, or faulting), if any, can be verified by transmission electron microscopy, and thus the present investigation was undertaken to compare the internal structure of massively and martensitically formed phases in Cu-Ga alloys which were derived from a parent of the same composition. The transformation characteristics of ß Cu-Ga alloys were also studied. The bcc ß phase in the Cu-Ga system, Fig. 1, is stable above 616oc.' Depending upon the cooling rate, ß Cu-Ga alloys can undergo three different types of phase transformations. The ß phase of eutectoid composition (23.7 at. pct Ga) decomposes into the ? phase (hcp) and the phase (complex cubic) by means of a eutectoid reaction. When the cooling rate is increased so that the decomposition of 0 into [ and ? is suppressed, the ß phase transforms into a nonequilibrium hcp phase, herein denoted ?m by a process of very rapid growth called a "massive" transformation. At even faster quenching rates the massive transformation can be suppressed and the ß transforms martensitically. Massive transformations, apparently similar to those in the Cu-Ga system, have also been studied in the Cu-Zn2,6-8 and Ag-Cd systems.9 Definitive characteristics if the Massive Transformations in 0 Cu-Ga Alloys1 1) The most remarkable feature of the massive transformation in Cu-Ga is that there is no bulk composition change on transformation. According to Massalski,1 the resulting [, phase is a supersaturated extension of the equilibrium [ phase. The lattice parameters continue the trend exhibited

Jan 1, 1965

By R. M. Leibrock, C. W. Ziemer, R. P. Vincent

The Stanolind flowmeter, which employs a hot-wire anemometer connected in a Wheat-stone bridge circuit, has proved useful for determining the relative productive ability of individual sand members of gas wells. The operation of this instrument in measuring gas velocities in the well bore above each producing member has provided both a direct and accurate means of analyzing reservoir performance. Results of tests conducted with the well flowmeter in the Hugoton gas field of western Kansas have indicated some rather unusual production characteristics. In two cases it was found that all or the greater part of the total gas produced was coming from one section in wells where four "pay" sections had been perforated individually. These actual measurements contradict in many instances the indications of data obtained from electric logs and from core analysis; the fact that these latter sources often give incorrect results, demonstrates the necessity of a method, such as is provided by the well flowmeter, for accurately determining the amount of gas coming from each producing member. Introduction In any gas well where a number of pay sections have been perforated individually and are producing to a common outlet, the question arises as to the relative amounts of gas being passed through each set of perforations. In the past it has been the policy to depend on core analysis to estimate relative productivities, or, where the sections were not cored, to obtain some idea of production characteristics from electric-log studies. The weaknesses in these methods are readily apparent and indicate the need for more reliable means of measuring gas flow from each zone. The Stano-lind flowmeter* was developed for this purpose. Preliminary tests were made with the instrument in the Katy gas field near Houston; however, the bulk of the routine work with the well flowmeter has been confined to the Hugoton gas field in western Kansas, where results obtained have been encouraging. A description of the instrument, the field technique employed in testing, and a few of the results obtained in the Hugoton area are discussed in this paper. Description or Instrument The well flowmeter is 1¾ in. od and 7 ft long; it is entirely self-contained, can be run through tubing as small as 2 in. id in wells with high pressure (4500 psi) and temperature (210°F) and is lowered on a wire line commonly used for other instruments of the bottom-hole type at falling rates up to 500 ft per minute. It will detect gas flow as low as 10 ft per minute linear velocity, and yet withstand and record velocities of 1000 ft per minute without damage to the detecting element. Killing the well is not required nor desirable for running a production profile when using the instrument, and it is necessary to stop flow for only a short time. The detecting element of the instrument is a hot-wire anemometer connected in a

Jan 1, 1948