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ASIDE from the John Fritz Medal, in which the Institute participates through its representation on the John Fritz Medal Board, the Institute itself has five major awards to make annually for excellence in technical papers, as follows: The Robert W. Hunt Medal, The Hadfield Prize, The J. E. Johnson Jr., Award, The Lewisohn Platinum Prize to senior members, and the President's Prize to junior members. ROBERT W. HUNT MEDAL The partners of Robert W. Hunt established a fund which was presented to the Institute at a fitting ceremony on May 27, 1920, to establish an annual medal and a sum of money to be awarded under the following rules: 1. The award shall consist of two prizes; first of a gold medal, second of a sum of money; a certificate to accompany each prize. The money prize shall not be awarded to. a member over 40 years of age, but under unusual circumstances, both prizes may be allotted to one person provided that he is not over 40 years of age. In general it will be understood that the Committee shall award the money prize to the younger men, rather than the medal. 2. The awards shall be made not oftener than once a year to that person or persons contributing to the Institute the best original paper or papers on iron and steel. The scope of the term "iron and steel" shall be determined by the sub-committee considering the awards. In general, papers dealing with the practical side of the subject have preference over those dealing with the theoretical side in recognition of the fact that Captain Hunt's main contributions to the industry have been in the improvement of production and quality of material. 3. A sub-committee of three to five including the Chairman of the Iron and Steel Committee, shall be appointed by the iron and Steel Committee annually to adjudge the award subject to approval. 4. The awarding committee shall submit its report to the Iron and Steel Committee at its October Meeting, and the. award be certified to the Secretary of the Institute in time to permit the presentation to be made at the Annual Meeting of the Institute. 5. The recipient of the award shall be designated "The Hunt Medallist." SIR ROBERT HADFIELD PRIZE Sir Robert Hadfield has offered an Institute prize of $1000 for researches with regard to the different forms of combination of carbon in iron and steel. Until within a few weeks no paper has been submitted which could compete for this prize. If the paper in hand should not meet the requirements, the donor has suggested that the prize be transferred and offered for: (a) the determination of the hardness in metals in connection. with super-hardness, (b) in consideration of questions of fuel economy, (c) in consideration of questions of industrial development and labor. J. E. JOHNSON, JR. AWARD This award is made from the income of a fund of $3000 donated by Mrs. Margaret Hilles Johnson in memory of her husband, J. E. Johnson, Jr., who was a prominent engineer, author of two valuable volumes on iron blast-furnace construction and practise, vice-chairman of the Institute's Iron and Steel Committee, and a frequent contributor of papers to the Institute's TRANSACTIONS.

Jan 1, 1925

By C. W. Price, G. A. Wheeler

BERYLLIUM has always been a difficult material to prepare for metallographic examination. Severe surface deformation occurs during mechanical grinding and polishing, and a suitable bright-field etchant has not been developed. Certain electrolytic techniques produce satisfactory polishes, but these techniques have not yielded entirely consistent results. Furthermore, they have not provided satisfactory bright-field etches. The purpose of this paper is to describe an electrolytic polishing technique that can also provide an excellent bright-field etch. In addition to the bright-field etch, other advantages of this technique are excellent reproducibility, rapidity, and ease of polishing and etching. Experimental Technique. Specimen Preparation. Beryllium specimens may be either mounted or unmounted for the use of this technique, and the size of the specimens is not important. Specimens with surface areas up to 4 sq cm have been electrolytically polished and etched successfully with this technique. The most important requirement is to provide a good electrical contact to the specimens, preferably on the back of the specimens. When specimens are mounted, a hole is drilled through the back of the mount so that the specimen can be contacted with a probe. Conventional metallographic grinding techniques are used to prepare the specimens for electrolytic polishing. The specimens are ground on silicon carbide papers. Grinding through the usual series of papers down to the 600-grit paper is recommended to minimize the electropolishing time, although successful electrolytic polishes and etches have been obtained by grinding only through the coarser papers. A continuous flow of water is used during grinding to provide lubrication and to minimize contamination. Mechanical polishing is not required because high rates of material removal are achieved with the electrolytic polishing. Polishing. Most of the results reported in this paper were obtained with a "Disa-Electropol", manufactured by Struers Scientific Instruments of Copenhagen, Denmark. Satisfactory results have also been obtained with the conventional beaker technique of electrolytic polishing, however, the conditions applicable to both the Disa unit and the beaker technique will be described. Stainless-steel cathodes are used in both techniques. In the beaker technique, a flat cathode, with an area at least twice that of the specimen, is used, and the specimen is held parallel to the cathode. The distance between the specimen and the cathode affects the quality of the electropolish. This distance is set at about 7 mm in the Disa unit; the same distance produces the best results in the beaker technique. Specimen-cathode distances greater than about 20 mm produce considerable relief, while distances less than 7 mm cause high current densities that are difficult to control. An electrolyte of 2 pct HC1, 2 pct HNO3, and 2 pct HCIOl in ethylene glycol gives the most satisfactory results for both electrolytic polishing and etching. This electrolyte was developed by altering the composition of a similar electrolyte used for electrolytic lapping1 and adding HClOl to improve the etching characteristics of the electrolyte. Variations of from 0.25 pct to as much as 5 pct of each of the acids do not significantly affect the results, but the greatest amount of control and reproducibility can be obtained with the composition of 2 pct of each acid. Generally, lesser amounts of the acids produce lower polishing and etching rates, while greater amounts of acids cause high current densities that are difficult to control.

Jan 1, 1968

By W. L. Falke, A. A. Cochran

A basic problem in connection with manganese is to find economical ways to utilize domestic resources. As a part of its program to conserve domestic mineral resources and to reduce dependence of foreign sources, the Bureau of Mines had conducted extensive research to broaden manganese technology and to find economical, technically-feasible processes for recovering manganese from these low-grade resources. This paper analyzes some of the major difficulties which have been encountered in previously proposed processes for treating low-grade manganese ores and discusses a process which may circumvent many of these difficulties. Vast deposits of low-grade manganese ore exist in the U.S., yet domestic production is insignificant compared to the more than 2 million tons of ore imported yearly into this country.' A basic problem in connection with manganese is to find economical ways to utilize domestic resources.2 As a part of its program to conserve domestic mineral resources and to reduce dependence on foreign sources, the Bureau of Mines has conducted extensive research to broaden manganese technology and to find economical, technically feasible processes for recovering manganese from these low-grade resources. Although a great many processes have been proposed for treating domestic manganese resources, a failing of many of them is that too many steps are involved for economical operation.' Some of the major processes that have been proposed were reviewed by Norman and Kirby.3,4 Chlorination processes have become increasingly useful as a means of recovering valuable metals from raw materials, because the relative cost of chlorine (Cl2) and hydrogen chloride (HC1) has decreased through the years, and because the corrosion resistance of materials of construction has been improved. The objective of these processes is to form metal chlorides that are more volatile or water-soluble than are the corresponding oxides or sulfides; these compounds then can be separated from the gangue or other minerals by volatilization or leaching. Several chlorination processes for the recovery of manganese have been investigated by the Bureau of Mines5-8 and others; the major chlorination processes were reviewed in 1963, and their main features were compared.4 In all these processes, the simultaneous leaching or volatilization of iron chlorides with manganese chloride (MnCl2) is a problem, and the more iron that is present, generally the greater the problem. The leaching step is not highly selective, and the product of this step is, at best, suitable only for the production of ferromanganese or for further processing to remove iron. The product of the volatilization step is, in all cases, a mixture of iron and manganese chlorides that contains too much iron even for ferromanganese production, and must undergo additional processing steps for iron removal. THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS The literature indicates that the desired chlorination reactions will proceed at practical rates at temperatures near 1200°K (927°C). Free energy changes at 1200°K for the critical steps of the reduction and chlorination reactions9-11 follow: Most of the research on chlorination processes for manganese recovery has been done with HC1 rather than with C12, for the following three main reasons: 1) Recycling of the chlorinating agent, which is economically vital, appeared to be easier for HC1

Jan 1, 1968

By A. M. Rowe

A considerable quantity of experimental hydrocarbon K-factor data has been correlated as a function of component identity, temperature, pressure and convergence pressure. To utilize these correlations effectively, convergence pressure must be determined accurately, particularly for volatile mixtures near their critical states. This paper presents phase diagrams that illustrate physically the meaning of convergence pressure. A new method, referred to hereafter as the "critical composition method", will be outlined for calculating convergence pressure. An example calculation has been included to illustrate how to use this new technique. INTRODUCTION The principle of hydrocarbon phase composition calculations as applied to such diverse problems as optimizing separator performance or predicting fluid compositions at various stages of reservoir depletion is the same. Usually, temperature, pressure and the numbers of moles of the various components of the fluid contained in a given volume are known. Questions answered by the phase calculation are what fraction of the total mass of fluid exists in each of the equilibrium phases, and what are the mole fractions of the various components in the two phases? To answer these questions the Natural Gasoline Supplymen's Assoc. (NGSMA) has correlated a considerable quantity of K-factor data as a function of temperature, pressure, component identity and convergence pressure.l To use these correlations to obtain the best answers possible, one must be able to calculate the convergence pressure. This is particularly true for over-all fluid compositions in the neighborhood of the critical state. STATEMENT OF THEORY Use of convergence pressure as a correlating parameter is based on a postulate similar to the law of corresponding states used in correlating PVT data of hydrocarbon gases. This postulate, which proposes convergence pressure as a correlating parameter, has been stated as follows: "The equilibrium vaporization constant for one component in a complex system is the same as the equilibrium constant at the same temperature and pressure for the same number or kind of components, providing only that the convergence pressures of the two systems are exactly the same at the same temperature and that the components are of the same homologous series".2 This law, as with all laws of physics, cannot be proven theoretically. It can only be justified by experimental data supporting its premises. Arguments have been made that this law violates Gibb's phase rule. For example, consider a four-component system. By Gibb's phase rule, which is thermodynamically rigorous, f = c — P + 2 =4, for a four-component, two-phase system. Thus, four independent intensive variables must be specified to establish completely all the intensive variables of the equilibrium phases. On the other hand, according to convergence pressure theory, only three variables need be specified for any mixture containing four different components. These variables are temperature, pressure and convergence pressure. Thus, the two laws appear to be in conflict. However, the convergence pressure postulate is more restrictive than Gibb's phase rule. It applies only to mixtures of the same homologous series. Hence, these two concepts are not in disagreement. PHASE DIAGRAMS DESCRIBING CONVERGENCE PRESSURE This paper presents phase diagrams grading from the simple two-component system to the more complex four-component system to illustrate convergence pressure. A less abstract definition of convergence pressure will be stated that is

By Peter J. Szabo

INTRODUCTION The time period from the detailed feasibility study to the post investment audity usually ranges from three to eight years depending upon the nature of the mining project considered. It is the only after the post investment audit that we know the adequacy of the assumptions made concerning operational risk assessment in the detailed feasibility or acquisition economics. The post investment audit results from numerous mining projects can best be described by a verse by John Greenleaf Whittier's Maaud Muller. It reads "For all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these 'It might have been!"' Dissecting the negative results of numerous mining projects we find faulty assumptions concerning markets, geology, capital investment and operational risk assessment. Although in hindsight many of these assumptions could have been considered impossible or impracticle to have forecast with any degree of certainty, we find that refined assumptions concerning operational risk assessment could have been made with only a modicum of additional "Due Diligence". Anyone who invests in a mining property should employ a much higher discount rate of future cash flow, (usually in the minimum range of 25%-30%), than he would expect from such safe investments as Treasury Bills or high grade Utility Bonds. The nature of this steep discount translates to a large uncertainty concerning the timing and actualization of assumptions contained in the detailed feasibility study. We must remember that when a project gets beyond 20 years, any contribution to the value of the project of cash flow is minimal due to the nature of the discounting process. Thus for each full or partial day lost in the development or early operation stage of a project, the financial impact will be greater than similar lost days later on in the project. Adequate operational risk assissment is particularly critical when bidding on competitive tenders for coal deposists in remote locations such as the Bowen Basin in Queensland, Australia. Because of the market attractiveness of these coal deposits for supplying end users in the Far East, Middle East and Europe, state governments require competitive tender biddings via the Authority to Prospect process. Front end bonuses and super royalty payments must be commited before the actual mining conditions are known. Time to submit firm offers from the actual request for proposal vary from 90 to 120 days. Thus any operational risk assessment must be detailed, realistic and reflective of the actual project. When one searches the literature, one finds limited qualitative data on operational risk assessment in valuation papers. Usually this facet of valuation takes a secondary role to such areas as reserves, markets, and environmental considerations. When one comes to the question of operational risk assessment more often than not one finds the use of "rules-of-thumb", such as tons per man shift, average production, average seam height, etc., are used to forecast results on which banks and other financial institutions are required to make investment decisions. Because of the extremely competitive environment of the 1970's and 1980's numerous financial institutions approved loans without adequate "Due Diligence", and are currently paying a steep price in terms of non performing loans and charge offs. One must always remember that each operation is unique with its own characteristic

Jan 1, 1985

By J. P. Martin, A. H. Geisler, J. H. Crede, E. Both

The investigation of a 50 pct Co alloy was undertaken to determine whether there was any direct correlation between the structure and properties of Co-Fe alloys which were given various magnetic heat treatments. The magnetic anisotropy and texture of the 0.002-in. cold-reduced 98 pct material tend to decrease and change in nature with increasing temperature of the recrystallization anneal. Annealing samples in a magnetic field had little effect on either the magnetic properties or texture. However, cooling them in a magnetic field greatly improved their magnetic properties. THE beneficial influence of a magnetic field applied during the heat treatment of certain soft magnetic materials has been known for a long time. Early work showed that the presence of a magnetic field of a few oersteds during the heat treatment of Fe-Ni alloys will cause a large increase in maximum permeability. A pronounced increase in the residual induction which is produced by the magnetic anneal causes the hysteresis loop to approach the shape of a rectangle. Such results are beneficial since the desired properties are high permeability, high induction at maximum permeability, high residual induction, and low coercive force. More recently Libsch and coworkers1 studied the effect of magnetic annealing on the hysteresis properties of a series of Co-Fe alloys prepared from powders. They observed good response for the 35 and 50 pct Co alloys but little response for the 42 pct Co alloy. They pointed out that this was somewhat surprising since the 42 pct alloy has a high linear magnetostriction and zero crystal anisotropy and similar conditions in Fe-Ni alloys give excellent response to magnetic annealing. They found optimum properties to be at the 50 pct composition with residual induction, Br = 19,000 gauss and coercive force, Hc = 0.68 oersteds after the magnetic anneal. Before the magnetic anneal these values were B, = 12,600 gauss and Hc = 1.15 oersteds. The optimum treatment consisted of cooling from above the y-a transformation temperature to 900°C in a field of 20 oersteds, holding 11/2 hr at 900°C, then cooling at a rate of 20° to 25°C per min in the field to below 230°C. Cooling rate mainly affected coercive force with the value decreasing from 1.09 to 0.88 oersteds as the rate was increased from 3° to 48°C per min. Cooling from 1020" to 900°C in a field followed by further cooling to 230°C without the field gave properties decidedly inferior to those for samples annealed with the field applied throughout the cooling. They concluded that to get the best properties the samples must be cooled in a field to a threshold temperature above which the alloy is plastic enough to be affected by magnetostriction. In this respect the holding temperature must be high enough so that the alloy exhibits good plasticity to permit the optimum orienting of magnetic domains by relaxation of magnetostriction. In contrast, the holding time was of less significance for there was little improvement when the time exceeded 1/2 hr. The improvement in properties effected by magnetic annealing has usually been attributed to the establishment of a domain texture caused by the "freezing in" of magnetic strains. On the other hand, Smoluchowski and Turner2,3 apparently found that a magnetic field applied during recrystallization could alter the crystal texture. If this effect is real, improved properties would also be expected when

Jan 1, 1954

By C. A. Hartinagel

During 1941, the total production of crude oil in New York state was 5,185,000 bbl. This represents a small increase over the average for the past five years. From 1921, when the annual production of the state amounted to only 988,000 bbl., there was a regular annual increase in production (excepting one or two years) until the 5,000,000-bbl. mark was reached in 1937, After more than 20 years of oil recovery by flooding methods, it was generally believed, until a few months ago, that the rate of production was nearly at its peak and within a few years the fields would experience a gradual decline as the thicker sands became exhausted and the thinner ones could be worked only at increasing costs. As a result of the present emergency, however, unusual efforts are being made, in spite of higher costs of operation, to increase the output of Pennsylvania grade oil, to which the New York product belongs. Since most of any increased production would be obtained by flooding, and since floods travel slowly, no large increase in production can be expected for some months to come. During the first year, 10 or 15 per cent increase could be obtained, but maximum production, an increase of perhaps 40 per cent, could not be expected until some time during the second or third year. In the Allegany fields, which account for two thirds of the state's oil production, 1246 wells, including water-intake wells, were drilled during the year; 390 more than in the preceding year and 590 more than in 1939. It is evident that much of the best oil territory has already been developed. As producers move toward edge properties and thinner sands, returns will be smaller, whereas costs remain the same or, under war conditions, become higher. It is estimated that at least 60 million barrels of oil is in sight and will be produced from the thicker sands by present recovery methods. In the thinner sands and edge properties, some 35 million additional barrels can be produced at a profit only if prices become higher. In view of the fact that there is little hope of finding new oil pools in New York, one of the future problems of the oil producer will be to obtain adequate returns for increased production costs. The year started with a posted price of $2.15 per barrel of crude. There were five successive price increases until the high of the year was reached at $2.98 on Aug. 14. Eight days later the Office of Price Administration directed that the price be reduced to the June level of $2.75 a barrel, which remained in effect to the end of the year. With rising costs of operation, it is feared that many of the smaller properties cannot continue production unless the Federal price cut is revoked. During the year, Allegany Refiners Inc., a local enterprise founded in 1933, with plant at Bolivar, western Allegany County, increased its refining capacity from 1000 to 1500 bbl. daily. At the same time equipment was added to make the plant a complete lubricating-oil refinery, including facilities for the refining of wax into the finished product. Previous to the enlargement, it was necessary to sell the wax

Jan 1, 1942

By Henry Drinker

The Institute has lost a valued member by the death of Eckley B. Coxe, Jr. He bore the name of one who was largely instrumental in founding the Institute, and to whose support and guidance as active member, Vice-President, and President, the Institute owes. much. Eckley B. Coxe, Jr., was the nephew of the late Eckley B. Coxe. He held a large interest in the coal estates owned and developed by his family, and he was thus naturally led to take a continuing interest in mining matters, and for years and up to the time of his death was a full member of the Institute. He died at his residence, Drifton, Pa., on Sept. 20 last, aged 44. He was a member of the class of '93 of the University of Pennsylvania,. of which great institution he was a devoted alumnus. His educational and charitable activities were numerous, but his chief life-work and interest was in archeological investigation and research in Egypt, carried on through the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania of which Museum he was President. The discoveries made by the various expeditions financed and directed by him, and the notable publications issued by his direction and at his expense, chronicling the results, are among the most important researches ever made of buried Egypt. Mr. Coxe was a member of the International Historical Society and of many educational and charitable organizations. By his will, among other bequests, he left $500,000 to the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania and $100,000 to the University, the income of the latter fund to be applied to increasing the salaries of the professors of the Institution. He also left $100,000 to the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, of which he was a manager, and in addition thereto $10,000 of which the income is to be applied in providing Christmas presents for .the child patients, and in providing an annual dinner for the patients and attendants of the hospital. He bequeathed $50,000 to Leonard Hall, an associate mission of the Episcopal Church, at South Bethlehem, Pa., $25,000 to the Epileptic Hospital and Colony Farm (Philadelphia) ; $50,000 to the Philadelphia Orthopaedic Hospital and Infirmary for Nervous Diseases; $15,000 to the United Charities of Hazleton, Pa., the income to be applied to the salaries of nurses; and $25,000 to the Mining and Mechanical Institute of the Anthracite Coal Region of Pennsylvania, founded by his uncle, Eckley B. Coxe, and of which Eckley B. Coxe, Jr., was an active trustee up to the time of his death. This Institute is known as one of the best preparatory schools for technical education in Pennsylvania, and is mainly devoted to extending an opportunity for education by day and night schools to the boys and young men of the Anthracite Region. Its principal is an alumnus of Lehigh University; it has an able local Board of Trustees, and an Advisory Board consisting of the Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, the President of Lafayette College, and the President of Lehigh University, all three of which institutions have established prize scholarships in the institute. Mr. Coxe carne of a distinguished ancestry, the record of which is fully given in the biographical notice of his uncle, Eckley B. Coxe, by Dr. R. W. Raymond, in Vol. XXV of the Transactions.`

Jan 12, 1916

By W. G. Matteson

The origin of the salt domes of the Gulf coastal plain has been investigated by many of the most able geologists, but the problem cannot be said to have been satisfactorily solved. Since 1860, numerous theories have been presented, only to be discarded, at least in part, as more complete infomation revealed their fundamental weakness. Real progress toward solution dates from 1902, when Hill1 advanced the theory of secondary deposition of the domal materials from saturated solutions of hot saline waters ascending from great depths under hydrostatic head along structural lines of weakness. Shortly thereafter, Harris,² using Hill's hypothesis as a basis, explained the doming and pronounced uplift associated with these salt cores as the result of forces exerted by growing salt crystals. This was a marked advance over the ideas of Coste3 and Hager,4 since no evidence of igneous intrusives, as they assumed to explain the uplifts, had been found associated with the domes. Harris5 developed his theory until it offered such apparently plausible explanations of so many details of dome phenomena that his hypothesis and conclusions received widespread acceptance, despite some serious objections, and today his theory, somewhat modified, is considered by many able investigators to be the best explanation of the origin of these domes. The immense production of oil per acre, the recognition of the high lubricating quality of the oil, the development and recognition of the efficiency and advantages of oil-burning vessels, with the subsequent exceptional demand for fuel oil, and the resultant advance in the price of coastal crude, have been responsible for a prospecting and develop- 1 Robert T. Hill: Beaumont Oil Field with Notes on Other Oil Fields of the Texas Region. Jnl. Franklin Inst. (1902) 164, 143. 2Gilbert D. Harris: Rock Salt in Louisiana. Louisiana Geol. Survey Bull. 7 (1907) 76. ³E. Coste: Volcanic Origin of Natural Gas and Petroleum. Jnl. Canadian Min. Inst. (1903) 6, 73. 4Lee Hager: Mounds of the Southern Oil Fields. Eng. & Min. Jnl. (July 28, 1904) 78,137, 180. 6Gilbert D. Harris: Geologicel Occurrence of Rock Salt in Louisiana and East Texas. Econ. Geol. (1909) 4, 12.

Jan 1, 1921

By J. M. Dahl, R. J. Warrick, O. K. Riegger, H. Van Vlack

A liquid which is rich in oxygen (and silicon) develops at steel rolling temperatures in resulfurized and plain-carbon steels. This liquid fluxes solid manganese sulfide. The composition of the liquid and the resulting microstructures vary with the manganese/silicon/oxygen ratios in the steel. The observations and conclusions zuhich are presented are used 1) to suggest a mechanism for MnS deformation in resulfurized steels, and 2) to rationulize hot-shortness anomalies between plain-carbon and resulfurized steels. 1 HIS is a summary of the dependence of sulfide inclusion microstructures upon steel composition, and an interpretation of the behavior of sulfide inclusions at steel-rolling temperatures. Sulfide inclusions are known to have several metallurgical effects upon steel. Their effects upon hot-shortness are best appreciated. Although hot-shortness is well known, it is questionable whether its mechanism is fully understood because there are several anomalies in our interpretation. For example, why should not high sulfur contents produce extensive hot-shortness in free-machining steels ? A second metallurgical consequence of sulfide inclusions appears because sulfide inclusions improve machinability. Furthermore, globular inclu- sions are to be desired over elongated inclusions. To date, we know that lower silicon contents (< 0.010 pct) favor the globular sulfides, but we do not know why this interrelationship between silicon content and inclusion shape exists. Finally, the evidence is strong that the surface quality of a hot-rolled steel is particularly sensitive to the sulfur content. SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS WORK The role of sulfur in hot-shortness was first suggested during the past century. It is uncertain who was the first to conclude that sulfur was less deleterious in the presence of manganese, and that manganese altered the sulfide phase from a liquid FeS to a solid MnS at steel-rolling temperatures. However, Urban and chipman&apos; emphasized that liquid FeS may accumulate as an interdendritic film during solidification. More recently, Keh and Van lack&apos; showed that the intergranular liquid does not completely surround the metal grains at all rolling temperatures. Rather, a small finite dihedral angle exists when geometric equilibration is attained at

Jan 1, 1962

By R. D. Lee

A simplification of the method of Hurst and McCarty for conducting potentiometric model studies by the single probe method is presented along with experimentally determined invasion patterns for certain idealized flow problems. The analytical solution for one class of these problems is given. Finally, a general description is given of a newly developed instrument which permits direct mapping of flow lines and determination of transit times in potentiometric-model studies. Introduction The object of this paper is to present: I. A simplification of the method of Hurst and McCarty for conducting poten-tiometric-model studies of oil and gas reservoirs by the single probe method. 2. Results of a series of studies of certain idealized flow problems and the general conclusions to be drawn therefrom. 3. A description of a new instrument, the Chronocartograph, which greatly reduces the labor and time required for conducting potentiometric-model studies. Certain general conclusions may be drawn as results of the investigation of the idealized flow problems. They are: I. Injection and extraction areas should be separated by as great a distance as conditions permit since, in general, the recovery prior to first breakthrough tends to vary as the square of this distance. 2. Little advantage is to be gained by use of more than eight injection wells or groups of injection wells for the case of circular productive limits. 3. Elongated shapes of productive limits are best exploited by injection on the extended major axis only, with a line of extraction wells lying on the major axis. 4. The use of peripheral injection wells for elongated shapes is permissible, if necessary, but requires extension of the line of extraction wells. The exploitation of an oil or gas field is effected either by the expansion of the gas and oil, or by their displacement by another fluid. Both methods may be used simultaneously. When the displacement of the oil or gas is the controlling factor there arises the problem of mapping the progress of the boundary between the fluid in place and the displacing fluid. This problem is of particular interest in the operation of a cycling project in a gas-condensate field, where the wet gas is produced from one or more wells, commonly called "extraction wells.&apos;&apos; This wet gas is taken into a processing plant where the condensate is removed. The remaining "dry" gas is injected back into the field through one or more wells, called "injection wells," both to conserve the gas for future use and also to maintain the pressure in the field. In an operation of this type it is essential to anticipate the manner in which the dry gas will spread through the field, because the ultimate recovery of the wet gas depends

Jan 1, 1948

By A. V. Deforest, A. R. Anderson, C. W. MacGregor

ONE of the important problems in the design of structures and machine parts subjected to rapidly applied loads is the determination of the strength and ductility of the material itself under such conditions. Realizing the need for such information, many investigations have been carried out in the past. Most of these experiments have been made using notched bars in bending either with the Charpy or Izod impact machine. While yielding valuable data on the effect of notches in the energy absorption of the material and on the condition of heat-treatment, this form of test does not lend itself readily to a determination of fundamental stress-strain relations. For this and other reasons, more attention has been paid recently to the tension impact test. An extensive literature already exists on the subject and only those investigations somewhat closely related to the present paper will be mentioned. For a more comprehensive list, the reader is referred to the Symposium on Impact Testing of the A.S.T.M., 1938. The work of Mann,1 Clark and Dätwyler,2 Nádai and Manjoine,3 Winlock and Leiter,4 Deutler,5 and Brinkmann,6 however, deserve especial mention. In most of the previous investigations on the subject, when stress-strain relations were obtained under high rates of loading, it was the common procedure to determine stresses based on the original area and strains based on the original length. Stress-strain curves were then constructed by [P OL, plotting So = Ao as a function of eo = Lo] where A o and Lo refer to the original area and gauge length, respectively. At present there exists a paucity of true stress-strain data in the impact problem. The advantages of constructing so-called true stress-strain curves in order to reveal the fundamental physical properties of the material for the tension test were discussed recently by one of the authors&apos; It was shown that the true physical behavior of the material in the tension test could best be represented [by plotting the average true stress, S = P as a function of e = q&apos; = log o = log Log] where P, A, L, S, e, and q&apos; refer to the load, the cross-sectioned area while the load P is applied, the actual gauge length, the average true stress, the true strain and true reduction in area, respectively. Besides giving a better physical representation, the method has certain additional advantages in that the stress-strain curve so plotted becomes a straight line from the maximum load point to fracture. The construction of such- curves, however, while comparatively simple for the slow rates of loading customarily used in the tension test, presents certain difficulties for tensile impact in that both loads and diameters are required throughout the test. The continuous measurement of test-piece

Jan 1, 1941

By O. Cuscoleca

The Austrian plants at Donawitz and Linz were the first to blow steel with high purity oxygen. The paper shows how the process was developed and gives a survey of the results achieved to date. Compared with open hearth steel of equal quality, the obvious advantages of oxygen steel are the low investment and conversion costs. The nitrogen content of oxygen steel is not higher than that of good open hearth steel. Rimmed and killed steel products made by the oxygen process are superior to rimmed and killed steel products made by the best open hearth process. TWO new steel plants using the principle of making steel with high purity oxygen went into operation in Austria, one at Linz (Vereinigte oster-reichische Stahlwerke) in November 1952 and the other at Donawitz (dsterreichisch-Alpine Montan-gesellschaft) in May 1953. An estimated 330,000 metric tons were produced by the two plants in 1953, the first year of operation. In 1954 production by Austrian plants- using the high purity oxygen approach will be raised to 450,000 metric tons. This will be in addition to facilities in Huckingen (Man-nesmann A. G., Düsseldorf, Germany), those planned and under construction at Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (Dominion Foundries and Steel, Ltd.), and elsewhere. It is expected that by 1955 a total capacity of one million tons of high purity oxygen steel will be available. At the close of the last century, because of increasing availability of scrap, open hearth steel production forged ahead at an ever increasing pace. This caused world steel production to rise faster than pig iron production and finally to overtake it. In 1911 65 million tons of steel were produced against 64 million tons of pig iron. World steel production was 209 million tons in 1951, while pig iron output was only 147 million tons. The 1951 breakdown for steel shows 118 million tons made from pig iron, while the balance, 91 million tons or 44 pct of the total tonnage of steel produced, was made from scrap. This increase in crude steel production on a basis of high scrap consumption led to the world market scrap shortage and soaring scrap prices. In the United States and other nations, production of converter steel has fallen far behind that of open hearth steel. The surplus of processing scrap, un-absorbable by converting mills and thus a welcome source for open hearth and electric melting shops in the past, together with regular scrap purchases, no longer can meet requirements of both open hearth and electric steel production in Europe. In addition, recent modification of the basic bessemer process, blowing with oxygenated blast, substantially raised the scrap capacity of these plants. Any further expansion of world steel production will necessitate utilization of self-containing processes in regard to scrap because of the shortage.

Jan 1, 1955

By T. H. Alden, H. W. Schadler

The strain rate dependence of the flow stress of the eutectoid Zn-Al alloy has been determined as a function of mechanical processing, microstructure, and temperature. The best superplastic properties result from the ultrafine, equiaxed structure produced by solution treatment and isothermal transformation at 0°C. Lamellar structures produced by isothermal transformation and coarse equiaxed structures produced by annealing also exhibit strain rate sensitivity in excess of 0.5, but at higher stresses and lower strain rates than the finest structure. Solution treatment and isothermal transformation eliminate the effect of prior processing history. Small composition variations in the binary alloy do not influence the mechanical properties. Below the eutectoid transformation temperature (.275C) increasing temperature lowers the flow stress at all strain rates. The data do not favor any of the present proposals for the mechanism of superplastic flow. ALLOYS of zinc and aluminum, near the eutectoid composition, have been investigated for: 1) the flow stress-strain rate and elongation behavior,1, 2) the transformation kinetics,3 and 3) structure,3"5 but the structure sensitivity of the mechanical properties is poorly understood. Using a near eutectoid alloy water-quenched from 380°C, Backofen et aL2 estab- high and increases with increasing strain rate. They found a correlation between strain rate sensitivity and tensile elongation as expected from the increased resistance to necking that a high strain rate sensitivity provides.296 The large elongation at high strain rates is attractive for metal forming. Since most other superplastic alloys7-l3 do not show high strain rate sensitivity at such a high strain rate (for the exception see Ref. 12) there is the possibility of a unique deformation mechanism for this alloy. The sensitivity of the mechanical properties of the eutectoid alloy to thermal history1 suggests a structure sensitivity that has not been demonstrated. Gar-wood and Hopkins3 identified a lamellar product for material transformed between 200" and 260°C. The size of the lamellae decreased with decreasing temperature. They also demonstrated that an unresolved transformation product formed below 200°C. A granular two-phase material was resolved for specimens quenched to below 150°C by Mitbauer and sauerwald4 who observed coarsening of the structure after annealing. The role of grain boundaries in superplastic deformation is suggested by the strong effect of grain refinement in encouraging this phenomenon at high strain rateS7-11, 13 and is emphasized in several proposals about rnechanism7, 8, 12 and in a theory14 of high-temperature deformation. Alden8 showed metallographic evidence that grain boundary sliding is occurring extensively at strain rates where m is large but less at high strain rates where normal plasticity is observed. Holt and Backofen10 have shown that sliding also oc-

Jan 1, 1969

By A. V. Deforest, A. R. Anderson, C. W. MacGregor

ONE of the important problems in the design of structures and machine parts subjected to rapidly applied loads is the determination of the strength and ductility of the material itself under such conditions. Realizing the need for such information, many investigations have been carried out in the past. Most of these experiments have been made using notched bars in bending either with the Charpy or Izod impact machine. While yielding valuable data on the effect of notches in the energy absorption of the material and on the condition of heat-treatment, this form of test does not lend itself readily to a determination of fundamental stress-strain relations. For this and other reasons, more attention has been paid recently to the tension impact test. An extensive literature already exists on the subject and only those investigations somewhat closely related to the present paper will be mentioned. For a more comprehensive list, the reader is referred to the Symposium on Impact Testing of the A.S.T.M., 1938. The work of Mann,1 Clark and Dätwyler,2 Nádai and Manjoine,3 Winlock and Leiter,4 Deutler,5 and Brinkmann,6 however, deserve especial mention. In most of the previous investigations on the subject, when stress-strain relations were obtained under high rates of loading, it was the common procedure to determine stresses based on the original area and strains based on the original length. Stress-strain curves were then constructed by plotting [So = ooT as a function of eo =o] where A o and Lo refer to the original area and gauge length, respectively. At present there exists a paucity of true stress-strain data in the impact problem. The advantages of constructing so-called true stress-strain curves in order to reveal the fundamental physical properties of the material for the tension test were discussed recently by one of the authors? It was shown that the true physical behavior of the material in the tension test could best be represented by plotting the average true stress, [S = P] as a function of [e = q&apos; = log A-le = log Lo] where P, A, L, S, [e], and q&apos; refer to the load, the cross-sectioned area while the load P is applied, the actual gauge length, the average true stress, the true strain and true reduction in area, respectively. Besides giving a better physical representation, the method has certain additional advantages in that the stress-strain curve so plotted becomes a straight line from the maximum load point to fracture. The construction of such curves, however, while comparatively simple for the slow rates of loading customarily used in the tension test, presents certain difficulties for tensile impact in that both loads and diameters are required throughout the test. The continuous measurement of test-piece

Jan 1, 1941

By R. D. Lee

A simplification of the method of Hurst and McCarty for conducting potentiometric model studies by the single probe method is presented along with experimentally determined invasion patterns for certain idealized flow problems. The analytical solution for one class of these problems is given. Finally, a general description is given of a newly developed instrument which permits direct mapping of flow lines and determination of transit times in potentiometric-model studies. Introduction The object of this paper is to present: I. A simplification of the method of Hurst and McCarty for conducting poten-tiometric-model studies of oil and gas reservoirs by the single probe method. 2. Results of a series of studies of certain idealized flow problems and the general conclusions to be drawn therefrom. 3. A description of a new instrument, the Chronocartograph, which greatly reduces the labor and time required for conducting potentiometric-model studies. Certain general conclusions may be drawn as results of the investigation of the idealized flow problems. They are: I. Injection and extraction areas should be separated by as great a distance as conditions permit since, in general, the recovery prior to first breakthrough tends to vary as the square of this distance. 2. Little advantage is to be gained by use of more than eight injection wells or groups of injection wells for the case of circular productive limits. 3. Elongated shapes of productive limits are best exploited by injection on the extended major axis only, with a line of extraction wells lying on the major axis. 4. The use of peripheral injection wells for elongated shapes is permissible, if necessary, but requires extension of the line of extraction wells. The exploitation of an oil or gas field is effected either by the expansion of the gas and oil, or by their displacement by another fluid. Both methods may be used simultaneously. When the displacement of the oil or gas is the controlling factor there arises the problem of mapping the progress of the boundary between the fluid in place and the displacing fluid. This problem is of particular interest in the operation of a cycling project in a gas-condensate field, where the wet gas is produced from one or more wells, commonly called "extraction wells.&apos;&apos; This wet gas is taken into a processing plant where the condensate is removed. The remaining "dry" gas is injected back into the field through one or more wells, called "injection wells," both to conserve the gas for future use and also to maintain the pressure in the field. In an operation of this type it is essential to anticipate the manner in which the dry gas will spread through the field, because the ultimate recovery of the wet gas depends

Jan 1, 1948

By H. E. Stamm, H. H. Spain, R. C. Rumble

This paper presents a reservoir analyzer study of the performance of the Woodbine formation in the East Texas basin. The study was made possible by the compilation of available information on the configuration. thickness and the pressure drawdown of the formation. The investigation was made of the pressure variations in the basin incident to production from the several Woodbine reservoirs. In addition, the apparent compressibility of Woodbine water was evaluated so that the potential water yield of the formation could be determined. The distribution of permeability of the Woodbine sand and the interference between producing areas were also investigated. In conjunction with this basic study of the Woodbine sand, an acceptable match of the production-pressure relationship in the East Texas Field was established on the analyzer. INTRODUCTION When production is taken from a reservoir contiguous to an aquifer, the resultant pressure gradient causes a water influx into the reservoir. For some years it has been the practice to predict the performance of water drive reservoirs with mathematical equations that relate the water influx into reservoirs to their pressure behavior. A rigorous solution of these equations is quite complex: hence, the conventional method requires the simplifying assumptions that the formation have constant thickness, permeability and poiosity, and that it have a known and regular shape. It is necessary to use performance records of the reservoir in question to determine the equation constants that make the results of the mathematical calculations duplicate the reservoir history. The values of the constants determined in this manner sometimes differ so greatly from theoretical or measured values that the constants appear unreasonable. The equation constants comprise such factors as the thickness, porosity and permeability of the formation, and the viscosity and compressibility of water. Usually the thickness, porosity and viscosity are known within a reasonable degree of certainty. whereas the formation permeability and the water compressibility are known with considerably less certainty. Hence. permeability and compressibility values are arbitrarily selected that will make the mathematical equations duplicate the reservoir behavior. In many reservoir studies the value of the compressibility of water thus selected has exceeded the reported value by a factor of from severalfold to manyfold. Whether this excessive value results from the inadequacy of the mathematical approach to take into account the shape irregularities and the heterogeneities of the aquifer, or is due to some type of formation compaction and decrease of porosity has not been established. Because of the significance of the potential water yield of formations with reference not only to oil reservoirs but to water resources as well, it is very important that a representative value for the effective water compressibility be determined. One of the best known examples of a field for which it has been possible in the past to predict the future reservoir pressure is the East Texas Field. Until about 1943 it was possible by means of mathematical equations to duplicate past pressure behavior and to predict with a high degree of accuracy the reservoir pressure of the field. Since 1943, however, the calculated pressures have deviated progressively from the observed pressures to such a degree that in recent years, it has

Jan 1, 1951

By F. W. C. Boswell, R. L. Cunningham, H. M. Weld

Chemical analysis shows the partition of the magnesium addition between the metal and the graphite is independent of whether the graphite is in the form of nodules or flakes. The bright central spot observed in nodular graphite polished sections is shown to be due to the structure of the nodules. DURING the past few years numerous papers have been published on the production1-7 and heat treatment" of nodular cast irons. However, very little information is available on the structure of the nodules and the reason for their formation. It would appear that an explanation of the phenomenon of nodulation must await a detailed knowledge of the nature of the nodule. Disagreement exists among various workers on such a fundamental point as to whether or not a nodule actually contains a microscopically visible, nongraphitic nucleus.9-11 Work was initiated with a view to obtaining definite information on this and other aspects of the problem. Chemical Separation and Analysis Microscopic appearance had indicated9-11 that a nongraphitic core might exist in nodules (Fig. 1). It appeared that a chemical comparison of separated nodules and flake graphite would be profitable, for if the core is nongraphitic a relatively large amount of certain elements would be found in the nodules as compared to the flake. This comparison could best be made by obtaining nodules and flake from the same melt of cast iron, part of which had been in-noculated with a suitable addition reagent for the formation of nodules. A 300 lb melt was produced. About half of this was innoculated in the ladle with an Fe-Si-Mg alloy to produce nodules and cast into keel blocks; the remaining half of the melt had silicon added in an effort to compensate for the silicon in the innoculant used in the other half of the melt and this was cast into similar keel blocks. The analyses of the resultant irons are given in Table I. Nodules and flake were chemically extracted from 2 kg samples of metal as described in the appendix. While this method dissolved the iron and chromium carbides, it did not dissolve the titanium, vanadium, and molybdenum carbides. These latter carbides could have been removed by nitric acid, but in other experiments it was found that it attacked pools of metallic iron entrapped in the nodules which had, until the nitric acid treatment, been protected from the attack of the sulphuric, hydrochloric, and hydrofluoric acids. It will be shown in the next section that entrapped iron exists in nodules but not in flake. On microscopic examination many tiny irregular particles were observed to accompany both the nodules and the flake. These were identified by tabling a sample of nodules from which a sufficient fraction was obtained for X-ray analysis. A good pattern of titanium carbide was obtained indicating that this was the predominant compound present. Since it was not possible to determine how completely the carbides could be removed mechanically and since their removal from flake is much more difficult, it was decided not to resort to any separation as this would render further comparisons more difficult. The samples were ashed in a combustion

Jan 1, 1953

By H. L. Gilbert, H. A. Johansen, R. G. Nelson

High purity electrolytic chromium plate has been hydrogen-reduced and arc-melted under inert atmosphere to give sound ingots. These ingots may be hot forged to break the as-cast structure and then worked at 500°C to finished form. An intermediate and final high temperature anneal gives best ductility and grain refinement. HE increasing interest in refractory metals for I use in high temperature gas turbines, jets, and rockets has led to great efforts in exploiting the fifth and sixth groups of transition elements. Much of the interest has centered upon production of metals that can be worked and fabricated by normal means to produce various engine parts or components having the high temperature characteristics of oxidation resistance and high creep strength required for such uses. If these pure elements do not exhibit all of the desired characteristics, it may be possible to obtain a high purity alloy that will. Since, in all cases, development of these transition elements has depended to a large extent upon removal of oxygen and nitrogen as a means for producing ductile metal, the hypothesis has been accepted that oxygen is the normal embrittling material in a high grade electrolytic chromium metal. Various methods have been employed in an effort to remove this oxygen by direct or indirect attack.&apos; Many workers have endeavored to produce pure chromium through reduction of the oxide by carbon or active metals, while others have recommended fusion electrolysis of chromium salts or reduction of these salts by active metals, such as sodium or calcium. Hydrogen reduction of the oxide or chloride and thermal dissociation of the iodide have been reported to give high purity metal. Experimental Work The U. S. Bureau of Mines, Northwest Electro-development Laboratory, has systematically re-examined the more promising methods and developed two which produce metal having ductility at temperatures lower than heretofore described. It has been found&apos; that oxide-free chromium chlorides in a NaCl-KCl carrier salt may be mag- nesium-reduced and the byproduct salts distilled off in vacuo to give a high purity chromium sponge. Fusion analysis conducted under the supervision of W. W. Horton of Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory showed the oxygen and nitrogen both to be below 10 parts per million on a selected sample. A small amount of carbon is carried over in the final metal from the chlorination and reduction steps which are carried out in graphite crucibles. This trace of carbon is not detrimental to hot ductility. A more practical method for producing ductile metal is through hydrogen reduction of high purity electrolytic chromium. Normal electrolytic chromium will, if "developed" for a few minutes at 1100°C in high vacuum, be found by the method of Adcock:; to contain about 1 pct chromium sesquioxide (Cr2O3). This small amount of oxygen may be effectively reduced by hydrogen.2, 4 The method employed was to crush electrolytic chromium plate in a gyratory crusher to pass 60-mesh; finer crushing appears to offer no advantage. A nitric acid leach removed the iron picked up during crushing. The leached powder was rinsed until neutral with distilled water and vacuum-dried.

Jan 1, 1954

By Robert Lowrie

Nine intermetallic compounds were tested in tension at various temperatures. Seven exhibited extensive plastic deformation at elevated temperatures. Correlations of tensile strength and elongation are attempted with melting (decomposition) temperature, valence electron configurations of the component elements, heat of formation, crystal structure, density, and volume decrease accompanying compound formation. A LTHOUGH intermetallic compounds have been -tX known for many years, the study of their mechanical properties, particularly in tension, is just beginning. The problem has been unattractive because of the well-known, erratic behavior of brittle materials tested in tension. The strong influence of surface or internal flaws as stress raisers in non-ductile materials and the effect of eccentricity of loading in superimposing bending stresses on the state of tension in the specimen are extremely difficult to mitigate and impossible to completely eliminate. Thus, tensile properties determined for brittle materials, such as intermetallic compounds at temperatures low in comparison to their melting points, are at best only general guides to the values to be expected in an ideal test of a perfect specimen of the material. It is, nevertheless, surprising that apparently no attempt was made to follow up the pioneer work of Tammann and Dahl1 in this field. Working with crude apparatus, these investigators succeeded in showing unequivocally that at temperatures sufficiently close to their melting points (from 75" to 400°C for the compounds tested) intermetallic compounds did exhibit plasticity. This was indicated by the appearance of slip lines on the surface of the specimen. No observations of strength were made in these tests, which were of a compressive or indentation type. Rossi2 in 1932 attempted to study the physical and mechanical properties of single crystals of a group of intermetallic compounds. However, he was able to prepare only one material, Cu2Z8,, in the form of large, defect-free, single crystals. Thus, he was able to report only the relative fragility of the compounds at room temperature. He reported one compound, Ag,Zn,, to be somewhat plastic at room temperature and Cu,Si to be friable, the latter in agreement with results reported herein. Although test results are available only in classified literature, it has also been announced that MoSi, possesses some ductility at elevated temperatures." In 1948 and 1949 Savitskii and Savitskii and Baron -ublished their work on the hot extrusion of Mg-Zn, Al-Mg, and Cu-Zn compounds. Under the favorable state of stress existing for this process MgZn, MgZn,, MgZn,, ß (Al-Mg), ? (Al-Mg) and 0 (Cu-Zn) could be reduced by amounts up to 90 pct at elevated temperatures. These authors also report that hardnesses of Mg-Zn compounds decrease from room temperature values of about 300 kg per sq mm to 30 to 50 kg per sq mm at 325°C. They found that alloys consisting solely of one Mg-Zn compound were most resistant to softening on heating, mixtures of a compound and eutectic less resistant, and mixtures of two compounds least resistant. The more rapid softening of mixtures of

Jan 1, 1953