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By Eleanor Sonley

In October 2000, temporary seismographic stations were installed above the Trail Mountain Mine, Emery County, Utah, USA to supplement a regional network. Over seven months, 1826 mining-induced seismic events were recorded with a magnitude range of M 0 to M 2.2 (Arabasz et al., 2002, 2005). Routine event locations for this dataset cluster around the longwall mining activity during the recording interval. However, applying a double difference relocation technique to the routine locations significantly improves the correlation between mining activity and event location. The resulting relocations depend greatly on station distribution and the number of arrival time picks. We use this dense temporary array to assess station distribution requirements for applying the double difference technique at other mines by systematically removing data from available stations, thus simulating sparser networks. The insight gained using the Trail Mountain dataset is used to develop a metric for assessing the usefulness of above-mine networks and to develop a tool for expanding seismic network coverage. To verify the appropriateness of these tools for wider application, we examine data from two additional mines located in the western United States. Improving the relative locations of mining-induced seismic events highlights the association of these events with active portions of the mine. Clusters, regions of quiescence and relative timing of events can be used by mine operators to assess hazard, optimize production, and evaluate performance of mine plans. The lessons learned from this study may be used in future network design to improve accuracy of event locations at other mines.

Jan 1, 2009

By Andrew G. Martin

In 1991, Modular Mining Systems began marketing a Slope Monitoring System (SMS) now installed at twelve mines. The SMS uses automated wire line extensometers to monitor field conditions frequently. Every few minutes, the slope displacement values and current temperature are transmitted to a central computer via a packet radio telemetry system. The desktop workstation receiving the data continuously provides updated displays of active slope monitors and generates audible and visual alarms if movement exceeds user specified thresholds. The computer system also generates numerous graphs and reports for quick analysis of slope stability. This work describes the functionality of the SMS, details improvements to the SMS hardware and software developed for several clients, outlines different installation techniques needed for wall rock and spoil monitoring, and interprets slope movement data using illustrations of stable and unstable conditions.

Jan 1, 1996

By Karl Zipf

In highwall mining, once a sufficient number of web pillars are developed, they can fail catastrophically in a domino-type failure, posing a safety hazard to highwall miners and sterilizing mineable reserves. Three recent case histories of catastrophic web pillar failure in U.S. and Australian mines are documented and analyzed with two design approaches. The conventional design approach uses only a strength criterion, while the postfailure design approach uses both strength and stability criteria to insure an acceptable failure mode should strength failure occur. Catastrophic highwall web pillar failures can cost money through equipment losses, production losses, coal reserve sterilization and lost opportunity costs. Coal recovery may be higher. but the benefits of higher recovery must balance the potential costs of failure. Application of the conventional or postfailure design approach will decrease coal recovery and revenues, but the risk of potentially costly failure is much less.

Jan 1, 1999

By Axel Preusse

Underground coal mining can cause seismic events. There is currently no way to predict such phenomena reliably, in particular stronger events. That is why, according to the current state of the art, empirical methods are employed in this field. Some assessment criteria, which relate to the geological and mining situation and either stimulate or rather help to avoid seismic events, are presented in this paper. These criteria are examined for a practical mining situation in Germany, with a view to estimate possible seismic events.

Jan 1, 2009

By Floyd Varley

In deep and highly-stressed coal mining, advanced design practices are used to minimize the potential for damaging events to occur. Despite these design efforts, the hazard of coal mine bumps can not be completely eliminated. This paper will review current and historic work practices used internationally to minimize the hazard to miners from mining in conditions which could produce a bump. These site specific work practices have a common base in monitoring for conditions which could result in a bump and application of controls to prevent the occurrence or minimize the severity of an event where miners are working. Monitoring practices range from purely observational to semi quantitative. Control methods attempt to initiate events in a controlled manner, absorb the energy of a potential event or reduce the potential for or magnitude of an event by altering the stress conditions of the mine workings. Building from the experiences of other coal fields, an empirical framework to manage the potential hazard of coal mine bumps can be developed to enhance the level of safety provided by prudent mine design.

Jan 1, 2008

By Vedala Sastry

Longwall mining for coal extraction in deeper deposits is gaining momentum in India, due to the increasing stripping ratios and depletion of shallow deposits amenable for surface mining. In longwall mining, presence of multiple seams with varying interburden thickness is a major problem especially while planning for over-mining. An investigation program was taken up to analyze the effect of the presence of goaf and virgin coal blocks in already developed and extracted lower seam by bord and pillar mining, on the stress distribution in the longwall panel in upper seam. Studies revealed marginal increase in horizontal and shear stress as longwall face passes above goaf to the virgin area present in lower seam. Stress distribution over chock shields was considerably affected when the face in upper seam reached 15-25m zone above the galleries in the lower seam. A clear influence of the presence of solid coal, galleries and goaf in lower seam was found in the loading of longwall panel in upper seam.

Jan 1, 2007

By Gang Chen

This paper explores the possibility of using short-term time-dependent plate loading tests to estimate the elastic and viscoelastic parameters of the weak floor strata typically associated with coal seams in Illinois. Plate loading tests with incremental loads, similar to incremental creep experiments, were conducted until the floor failure occurred. For each increment, the load was held constant for a period ranging from 1-4 hours until a constant deformation rate was achieved. The deformation-time data were analyzed for viscoelastic parameters of weak floor strata assuming its behavior to be adequately represented by the standard Burgers model. The analysis required development of mathematical equations for the time-dependent deformation of the standard Burgers material under a three- dimensional state of stress. Time-dependent pillar settlement data at one mine were also analyzed for elastic and viscoelastic parameters of the weak floor strata using the developed equations. These parameters were compared with similar parameters estimated from plate loading tests.

Jan 1, 1990

Characterizing coal mine roof rock is extremely important for hazard assessment, reinforcement, and entry design. The Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR) is an innovative rock mass classification that has found acceptance in the coal mining industry. A disadvantage of the original CMRR is that it cannot be determined in advance of mining, because it requires underground observations. An entirely new set of procedures have now been developed to determine the CMRR from exploratory drill core, as described in this paper. The new procedures employ Point Load Tests (PLT) to determine strength parameters that account for approximately 60% of the rating. Both diametral (parallel to bedding) and axial (perpendicular to bedding) PLT are conducted. The diametral tests allow estimates of bedding plane cohesion and rock anisotropy, both of which are critical to estimating susceptibility to horizontal stress. Traditional core logging procedures are used to determine discontinuity spacing and roughness. To ensure compatibility with the original CMRR, the new rating scales were verified by comparing drill core results with nearby underground exposures. To assist mine planners in using the new CMRR procedures, a large database of strength ratings of roof rocks was assembled through extensive point load testing and logging. Over 2000 point load tests (both axial and diametral) have been made on 30 common coal measure rock types from mines representing most U.S. coalfields. This database has been merged with the popular core rating system of J.C. Ferm into a field guide for geologists and engineers. By using the pictorial classification system of Ferm to identify the rock, typical CMRR can be compared with values calculated using the new CMRR procedures.

Jan 1, 1996

By David Bigby

In the UK, it is becoming increasingly necessary to open new longwall mining areas above old, abandoned workings. In such cases, strategic and gate roadways must often be driven and maintained across highly stressed areas and pre-existing and sometimes only recently formed subsidence troughs. Ground control at the edges of the subsidence trough can be particularly problematic, with complex combinations of stress and rock conditions being encountered depending upon the precise position in relation to underlying pillar edges. For economic recovery of these reserves, it is essential that rockbolt support is used wherever possible. It is therefore very important to the industry to develop its understanding of ground conditions and support requirements in these areas. This paper describes; ? the historical background to these problems and a series of documented UK case studies from the last 20 years. ? the experiences at UK Coal?s Riccall colliery, where a number of longwall panels were worked at a depth of around 800m, some 65m above previously worked longwalls. Actual experience is compared with pre-mining expectations and model predictions. ? design considerations and experience to date at UK Coal?s Welbeck and Thoresby collieries, which are embarking upon a series of longwalls in the Deep Soft seam, 30-40m above previously worked longwalls. The paper outlines numerical modelling techniques used to optimise such mine layouts within the complex geological and geometric constraints of a mature coalfield. These involve combinations of 2D and 3D finite difference and 3D boundary element models. It also discuss new modelling approaches which will be investigated in forthcoming EU funded research.

Jan 1, 2007

By D. F. Scott

Seismic tomography, as used in mining, is based on the principle that highly stressed rock will demonstrate relatively higher P-wave velocities than rock under less stress. A decrease or increase in stress over time can be verified by comparing successive tomograms. Personnel at the Spokane Research Center have been investigating the use of seismic tomography to identify stress in remnant ore pillars in deep (greater than 1220 m) underground mines. In this process, three-dimensional seismic surveys are conducted in a pillar between mine levels. A sledgehammer is used to generate P-waves, which are recorded by geophones connected to a stacking signal seismograph capable of collecting and storing the P-wave data. Travel times are input into a spreadsheet, and apparent velocities are then generated and merged into imaging software. Mine workings are superimposed over apparent P-wave velocity contours to generate a final tomographic image. Results of a seismic tomographic survey at the Sunshine Mine, Kellogg, ID, indicate that low- velocity areas (low stress) are associated with mine workings and high-velocity areas (higher stress) are associated with areas where no mining has taken place. A high stress gradient was identified in an area where ground failed. From this tomographic survey, as well as four earlier surveys at other deep underground mines, a method was developed to identify relative stress in remnant ore pillars. This information is useful in making decisions about miner safety when mining such ore pillars.

Jan 1, 1996

By D. J. Reddish

An understanding of the mechanisms that cause large seismic events in a deep mine provides a foundation for designing effective measures to reduce the incidence of these events, as well as reduce the potential for damage arising from these events. The work described in this paper focuses analytical efforts on major recognizable and controllable factors that influence mining-induced seismicity and serves to screen out many of the more random aspects of individual events. Information used in this study was developed in the course of a long-standing rock burst research program conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines in cooperation with mines in the Coeur d'Alene Mining District and regional universities. Information was collected on 39 seismic events having local magnitudes greater than 2.5 that occurred between 1989 and 1994. Five major types of events were developed from these data that describe all but two of the 39 large events. The characteristic mechanisms, tint-motion pattern, damage pattern, and relationships to mining and major geologic structures were defined for each type of event. This information provides a foundation for assessing whether or not changes in mining activity aimed at reducing one type of rock burst will increase the incidence of other types.

Jan 1, 1996

By Alan J. Zeni

Drainage of water from abandoned underground mines has become important in recent years because of safety concerns when mining near abandoned works or reentering abandoned mines for further development. Seepage from inundated mines causes environmental damage and may threaten homes and communities. Where topography permits, horizontal drilling can provide a quick and cost effective method for solving trapped water problems. The mechanics of the horizontal drilling operation as applied to water drainage are discussed in this paper.

Jan 1, 1990

By Guo Junfeng

The strength of coal mass saturated with gas is an essential parameter in studying the mechanism of gas and coal outburst, and its prediction method. Up to now, there has not been a method for determining the strength of coal mass saturated with gas. This paper describes a new method whereby the strength of in-situ coal mass can be determined and stored continuously and automatically. The simulation results obtained in the laboratory indicate that the new method allows a fast, reliable, inexpensive and convenient determination of the strength of coal mass.

Jan 1, 1992

By A. MacG. Robertson

A cone penetrometer has been used to assess the level of stress existing in hydraulically placed mine backill. The test apparatus was fabricated at the mine and consisted of a steel cone, connector rods and a hydraulic jack. Testing was carried out from a manway passing through the centre of the stope. The cone was pushed horizontally into the fill, both at right angles and parallel to the orientation of the stope walls, and the resistance to penetration was measured. Corrections were made to allow for friction along the rods. In a cohesionless sand, such as mine fill, the point resistance should be directly related to the in situ stress. The stresses in mine backfill are due to o the self weight of the fill o convergence of the footwall and hangingwall of the stope. Silo theory was used to estimate that component of the in situ stress due to the self weight of the fill. The difference between the stress predicted by silo theory and the stress estimated from the cone resistance was assumed to be due to convergence of the stope walls.

Jan 1, 1986

By D. S. Choi

This paper describes an improved source location technique for microseismic events related to coal mining. A system of non- linear distance equations is solved with the use of the Newton-Raphson method. This computational method is- advantageous when the number of geophones is limited. In addition, this paper includes the results of the analysis of data from several instruments which characterize both mine seismicity and environmental noise such as vehicle traffic. Analysis of the mine seismicity has contributed to a better understanding of caving above a longwall gob and of what constitutes stable ground conditions.

Jan 1, 1990

By Yemi Akinkugbe

Underground coal mining under massive sandstone can present significant challenges if the roof behavior is not well understood. This paper presents a classic cantilever bending/flexing behavior of a longwall tailgate roof caused by the weighting of structurally massive sandstone strata. Nineteen crosscuts of a longwall tailgate under massive sandstone were instrumented with position transducers connected to a data-logger to monitor roof convergence as the longwall face approached. During the monitoring program, an unusual tailgate roof divergence (uplift) was recorded. This roof behavior contradicts expected norm of roof convergence when the longwall is influenced by periodic weighting. The recorded roof movement data indicated that the roof divergence started well ahead of the longwall face. The most inby position transducer started recording progressive roof divergence when the longwall face was approximately 643 feet away. Very gradual roof convergence did not begin until the longwall face got to within 300 feet of the transducer. Recording of accelerated convergence only started after a massive caving event with the face within 280 feet of the recording transducer.

Jan 1, 2007

By R. B. Alke

Request to Mine Beneath Bridge The Jabs Run Bridge is a reinforced portland concrete arch filled bridge located on WV Bouts 7 near Pentress, WV. The bridge has a span of 22.9 m (meters) and a height of 4 m above normal pool elevation to the underside of the center of the arch (See Pig 1). The bridge is a two lane structure with a width of 6.86 m. The structure is over 50 years old Wing been built in 1929 and is owned by the Department (WV Department of Highways).

Jan 1, 1984

By Mao Bai

In predicting the integrity of under-mined structures, surface horizontal displacements and curvatures are frequently of greater importance than the more homogeneous vertical displacements. Accurate evaluation of mining induced subsidence and horizontal displacement further requires that the predictive model adequately represents the subsurface geology, mining geometry and extraction sequencing. The following documents an extension of the Subsidence Prediction and System Identification method (SPASID) to the evaluation of horizontal strains. Comparisons are made between predictions from SPASID and two other empirical methods against measured data from a case study. The system identification method is illustrated to predict horizontal displacements and strains most consistently with the in situ data.

Jan 1, 1989

By Gerald L. Stolarczyk

Safe and efficient coal extraction requires advanced radar subsystems that can be mounted on cutting drums of coal cutting machines. A look-ahead radar (LAR) must solve the radio geophysics problem of transmitting an electromagnetic (EM) wave through at least 20 feet (6.1 meters) of coal to an air- or water-filled void. The reflected EM wave must be processed in the radar electronics to determine the physical distance to the void. Horizon sensing enables selective cutting near the undulating sedimentary rock boundaries of the coal bed to address coal quality and ground control issues. Both sensors require subsystems for dynamic electric power generation, real-time measurement of drum rotation angle, detection of reflected EM waves, and processing to determine distance through coal and RF modem transmission of measured data to the mining machine. This paper describes the development of the subsystems and field test results.

Jan 1, 2006

By Michael Alber

Resin grouted rock bolts are the major support measure in coal mining. They are rather easy and foolproof to install, take immediately load and are the least time consuming support measure for controlling gateroad deformation. The use of only resin grouted bolts allows fast gateroad development which is essential for economical resource exploitation. The design of reinforcement / support systems for coal mining typically bases on empirical methods, which work fine when encountering known or usual ground conditions. However, coal mining approaches depths where little experience exists and numerical modeling is often the only method to estimate ground behavior. This paper discusses the geotechnical properties relevant to numerical model and focuses particularly on input values for modeling resin grouted rock bolts for safe gate design.

Jan 1, 2006