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By Thomas Brownfield

Development and production activity in Oklahoma during the year 1940 was of routine nature. Production, according to the Corporation Commission's figures, averaged 409,100 bbl. daily as compared with 421,000 bbl. for the year 1939. Discoveries were of minor importance except for the Cumberland pool in Marshall and Bryan Counties, in the southern part of the state. Maintenance of a relatively stable producing rate is attributable to the drilling of new wells and the recompletion of many old wells in the previously established producing areas. During the year 1785 new wells were drilled, a decline of approximately 10 per cent as compared with the previous year. Of the wells drilled, 962 were oil wells with a combined initial production of 241,000 bbl. daily, 172 were gas wells having aggregate capacities of 1205 million cu. ft., and 651 were dry holes. Wildcat activity increased 20 per cent over 1939 and 227 such wells were completed during the year; that isl 43 oil wells, 16 gas wells, and 168 dry holes. In addition to the new work completed, 603 wells were recorded as having been drilled deeper or plugged back to test new horizons; included were 334 producing wells with total initial production of 65,000 bbl. daily, 37 gas wells with initial aggregating 305 million cu. ft., and 232 abandonments. Footage drilled amounted to 4,730,000 ft., an average of 2650 ft. per well as com-pared with an average depth of 2600 ft. recorded the previous year. The principal new pools discovered as a result of the exploratory drilling were Cumberland; East Cromwell, in Okfuskee County, and Prague, in Lincoln County. At the end of the year Cumberland had 13 completed wells, which averaged 700 bbl. initial through tubing from the Simpson Bromide formation (Ordovician) at 4750 ft. East Cromwell had 10 wells with average initial of 435 bbl. in the Cromwell sand (Pennsylvanian) at 3460 ft. Prague had II wells with an initial average of 220 bbl. from the Senora sand (Pennsylvanian) at 3260 ft. There were notable extensions to the Dill pool, Okfuskee County, and to the Hewitt pool, Carter County. At the end of the year, 19 producing wells had been drilled in the former, with initials averaging 1000 bbl., and 63 wells averaging 150 bbl. daily in the latter. There were no notable changes in the policy of State conservation authorities with respect to proration. The Bureau of Mines recommendations for the year averaged 413,000 bbl. daily; the State author-ities fixed allowables at an average of 406,000 bbl. daily, while, as noted above, production averaged 409,100 barrels. The most important development in the older areas occurred in the following pools: Billings.—Seven oil wells with an average initial production of 2500 bbl. and two dry holes were completed during the year. Production from the Simpson horizon averaged 6025 bbl. daily as compared with 5950 the previous year. Production from this field has been almost steady since reaching its peak early in 1937. The major portion of the pool is efficiently operated as

Jan 1, 1941

By Thomas Brownfield

Development and production activity in Oklahoma during the year 1940 was of routine nature. Production, according to the Corporation Commission's figures, averaged 409,100 bbl. daily as compared with 421,000 bbl. for the year 1939. Discoveries were of minor importance except for the Cumberland pool in Marshall and Bryan Counties, in the southern part of the state. Maintenance of a relatively stable producing rate is attributable to the drilling of new wells and the recompletion of many old wells in the previously established producing areas. During the year 1785 new wells were drilled, a decline of approximately 10 per cent as compared with the previous year. Of the wells drilled, 962 were oil wells with a combined initial production of 241,000 bbl. daily, 172 were gas wells having aggregate capacities of 1205 million cu. ft., and 651 were dry holes. Wildcat activity increased 20 per cent over 1939 and 227 such wells were completed during the year; that isl 43 oil wells, 16 gas wells, and 168 dry holes. In addition to the new work completed, 603 wells were recorded as having been drilled deeper or plugged back to test new horizons; included were 334 producing wells with total initial production of 65,000 bbl. daily, 37 gas wells with initial aggregating 305 million cu. ft., and 232 abandonments. Footage drilled amounted to 4,730,000 ft., an average of 2650 ft. per well as com-pared with an average depth of 2600 ft. recorded the previous year. The principal new pools discovered as a result of the exploratory drilling were Cumberland; East Cromwell, in Okfuskee County, and Prague, in Lincoln County. At the end of the year Cumberland had 13 completed wells, which averaged 700 bbl. initial through tubing from the Simpson Bromide formation (Ordovician) at 4750 ft. East Cromwell had 10 wells with average initial of 435 bbl. in the Cromwell sand (Pennsylvanian) at 3460 ft. Prague had II wells with an initial average of 220 bbl. from the Senora sand (Pennsylvanian) at 3260 ft. There were notable extensions to the Dill pool, Okfuskee County, and to the Hewitt pool, Carter County. At the end of the year, 19 producing wells had been drilled in the former, with initials averaging 1000 bbl., and 63 wells averaging 150 bbl. daily in the latter. There were no notable changes in the policy of State conservation authorities with respect to proration. The Bureau of Mines recommendations for the year averaged 413,000 bbl. daily; the State author-ities fixed allowables at an average of 406,000 bbl. daily, while, as noted above, production averaged 409,100 barrels. The most important development in the older areas occurred in the following pools: Billings.—Seven oil wells with an average initial production of 2500 bbl. and two dry holes were completed during the year. Production from the Simpson horizon averaged 6025 bbl. daily as compared with 5950 the previous year. Production from this field has been almost steady since reaching its peak early in 1937. The major portion of the pool is efficiently operated as

Jan 1, 1941

By Arthur Lubinski, K. A. Blenkarn

It is explained why the bottom portion of freely suspended tubing in a pumping well buckles and straightens in succession during the pumping cycle. Field evidence of resulting rod-on-tubing wear, excessive polished rod load, and excessive horsepower are given. The possibility that buckling hastens pump wear is strongly suggested. Means for either prevention of buckling or for mini-mizing its effects are explained, their relative merits compared, and field results of their use given. These means are: tension anchors, tail pipe, sucker rod guides, and corrosion inhibitors. Charts and formulas for best use of tension anchors, tail pipe, and guides are given. Use of tension anchors, or compression anchors with a heavy tail pipe, prevents both buckling and breathing, thus improving volumetric efficiency. Without tail pipe, buckling above compression anchors precludes such improvement. INTRODUCTION It is well known that a column must be subjected to some compression in order to buckle; and also that a structural member does not buckle if subjected to a tension. When consideration is given to a tubular column, the question may be asked, "How is the buckling phenomenon affected by inside or outside pressure?' At first, it seemingly should not be affected. However, this is not so. In order to arrive at a correct deduction one should first understand the basic reasons for buckling of a column under loading*. Then he should add to the effect of that loading the effect of pressure. Following this procedure, one may discover quite unexpected phenomena. In some cases, when subjected to more pressure inside than outside, a pipe may buckle under tension. In other cases, a pipe may remain straight, although subjected to a very large compression. In 1950 and 1951 it was explained why the bottom portion of a string of pipe freely suspended in a well does not buckle even when subjected to a large compression due to buoy- ancy.2,3 It was shown that the com-monly used concept of a neutral point, as being a point in the string with neither compression nor tension, is inadequate, and a more relevant definition of the neutral point was introduced. The findings were also generalized to cases of different pressures inside and outside a pipe.3a Later, in a further generalization, allowance was made for variations of stress and pressure with depth.' The findings were applied to the new technique of hydrostatic high pressure testing of lengths of pipe in the mill.5 In 1952 it was observed that previous theoretical findings apply to tubing in pumping wells. The lower part of freely suspended tubing buckles during the upstroke portion of the pumping cycle. Later, it was ascertained that this phenomenon is responsible for wear and malfunctioning of the equipment. Various remedial measures were devised and successful field trials conducted. Only brief mentions on the subject have been published.6,7 In this paper, the phenomenon of tubing buckling is explained, field

Jan 1, 1958

By Arnulf Muan, R. E. Johnson

Equilibrium CO2 /CO ratios of a gas phase coexisting with selected oxide phase assemblages of the system CaO-"Fe0"-SiOz and vnetallic iron have been determined at 1080°C. The data obtained are used to calculate activity-conzposition relations for metasili-cute, orthosilicate, and CaO- "FeO" solid solutions, and to determine a new value for the free energy of formation of C&S&0,. The metasilicate solution is practically ideal, whereas large deviations from ideality exist in the othe,r two solid solutions. BECAUSE of the geochemical and metallurgical importance of the oxides CaO, "FeO", and SiOz, the system CaO-"FeO"-SiO2 has been the subject of several experimental studies during the past 30 years. Following the delineation of phase relations at liquidus temperatures by a group of investigators at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1933,1 Chipman and associates in the early forties2,3 determined activities of FeO in liquids of this system. Since that time, many attempts have been made to interpret the data of Chipman et al. in terms of the constitution of the silicate liquids and the interaction parameters among the various constituents of the system (see for instance papers by Richardson4 and by Flood and coworkers5). One of the assumptions made in some of these interpretations4 is that the binary silicate systems CaSiO3-FeSiO3 and CazSi04-Fe2SiO4 mix ideally in the solid state. The objective of the present study is to provide experimental data on activity-com position relations in solid solutions of the system CaO-"FeO"-SiO2. Such data will contribute toward an understanding of the thermodynamics of silicate solid-solution phases in general, and will serve specifically to confirm or refute some of the assumptions made in interpreting liquid slag behavior. PREVIOUS WORK Phase relations in the system CaO-"FeO"-SiO2 in contact with metallic iron were determined by Bowen, Schairer, and Posnjak,1 and additional phase-equilibrium data for this system have been presented by Allen and snow.' A reproduction of the most up-to-date phase diagram for this system is shown in Fig. 1.7'8 Of particular interest in the present investigation are the relations among the various crystalline phases slightly below the lowest solidus temperature in the system, as shown in Fig. 2. The present work will be concerned primarily with some of the composition

Jan 1, 1968

By Bernard Kopelman

THE particle size of tungsten metal powder used to make tungsten wire for use in radio tubes and incandescent lamps must be closely controlled if the highly desirable feature of nonsagging is to be achieved. Our knowledge of factors affecting the particle size of tungsten powder has been limited by lack of any extensive literature on the subject. There are no publications in the English language discussing this problem in any but the most general terms. In this paper the published experimental information on this subject is reviewed. Based on the published data and some experimental data obtained by the author, a general theory of factors affecting the particle size of tungsten metal powder obtained by reduction of the oxides in hydrogen is offered. The various forms of the tungsten oxides and tungsten metal used in the experiments described were those prepared by com¬mercial processes, so that the experimental results obtained on a laboratory scale would be more directly applicable to actual commercial reduction conditions. The effects of time of reduction, temperature, and concentration of water vapor in the hydrogen were observed by counting microscopically the particle distribution obtained. Such a method is very time-consuming, but the data obtained by this method are more reliable and more fundamental than those obtained by any of the several instruments available for measurement of particle size. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Until the year 1912, tungsten powder was prepared commercially by reducing tungstic oxide in the presence of carbon or one of its compounds (such as glycerin or ethylene glycol), usually by firing the mixture in a closed fire-clay crucible. The resultant powder contained about 95 per cent tungsten.1 When reduction of tungsten oxides by H2 was introduced commercially, 2.1 several investigators became concerned with the equilibria between tungsten metal and its several oxides in an atmosphere of hydrogen and water vapor.4-13 While these many investigations were in fair agreement on the equilibria there arose considerable controversy as to the chemical composition of the oxide between W03 and W02, because of very poor agreement on the equilibrium constant of this intermediate oxide reduction reaction. The controversy on this intermediate oxide has been in progress for more than 10o years. Thus Malguti,14 in 1835, decided it was W02.56. In 1857, Riche" proposed the formula W308. Usler,16 in 1865, confirmed the existence of W308 and further proposed W4O11. In 1897, Desi17 agreed upon W308 but also found W5014.

Jan 1, 1946

By James Howe

EVERY engineer and user of wire rope is desirous of information that will enable him to determine whether the performance of any particular piece of rope is satisfactory, and what conditions can be changed so as to increase the life of a rope. In most cases, it is far from easy to analyze the conditions of service and tell which is the greatest factor in determining the life of wire rope. If we start on a layout for an entirely new rope system, the task of making conditions satisfactory is simplified so far as the engineering details are concerned; but if the plant requiring wire rope is in operation, any change is likely to involve the expenditure of consider-, able money to replace and change over machinery that must be kept in constant operation, because a large monetary loss will result from a shutdown for even a few days. Often wire rope is kept operating under bad conditions, as the user thinks that it is cheaper and quicker to replace the rope than to make alterations in the hoisting machinery. A typical case is a metal mine operating in what is now almost the center of a large mining city, where it owns a few acres of mineral rights. It was expected that the shaft would go to a depth of 1000 ft. (305 m.), so a moderate sized rope, about 1 ¼ in. (31.7 mm.), was used on a 6-ft. drum with a 7-ft. head-frame sheave and rather short lead from drum to head sheave. This mine has gone deeper each year until, it is now 2500 ft. deep and the rope speed has been increased from 1500 ft. per min. to over 3000 ft. The original rope just filled the drum in one layer, now it overwinds three layers. The original ropes were probably 6 X 19 crucible steel and lasted from 12 to 18 mo.; now, the highest grade plow steel is used, yet the average service is only about 6 mo. The cause is not hard to find. If the engineers had known at the outset what would be done with this hoist, the design would have been very different. Conditions at this mine, from a wire rope standpoint, have gradually become worse and it is difficult to see how rope service on this hoist can be com-pared with the service of previous years with any fairness to the wire-

Jan 2, 1922

By P. W. Bakarian, John C. McDonald

Three magnesium alloys were processed in various ways to exhibit a wide variation in the ratios of yield strength and tensile strength in the rolling direction compared to the cross-rolling direction. Basal-plane pole figures were prepared from several specimens. A fair correlation was observed between the property ratios and the ratio of percent of poles oriented in the cross-direction quadrants compared to the percent oriented in the rolling-direction quadrants of the pole figures. THE modes by which magnesium crystals deform are such as to lead to marked preferred orientations in all forms of wrought products. The effect of the active modes at room temperature, coupled with these orientations, is often to produce a lower compressive yield stress compared to the tensile yield stress. The phenomenon is due to easy twinning in compression, and has been well-related to the preferred orientations as described by basal-plane pole figures of the hcp magnesium single crystal. The literature contains some information on the variation with test direction of the tensile properties of sheet, but no quantitative relationship to the observed pole figures has been established. These effects have been reviewed in the few com- prehensive treatises in English which have been written on magnesium technology and metallurgy.1°3 Roberts presents several pole figures, but no tensile-property data in the plane of the sheet. Raynor has no pole figures, but quotes Frommer's4 results. The information in Beck's compendium more or less parallels the results of Jones and powell.5 In both a Mg + 1.5 Mn alloy and a Mg + 4.6 A1 alloy, cold rolling was found not to change the general situation of higher properties in the cross-rolling direction,* than in the rolling direction. Thomas'6 X-ray studies of Jones and Powell's specimens did not permit correlation of properties and preferred orientation. Ansel and Betterton7 report tensile and compressive properties on three other alloys as a function of degree of cold rolling, plus a recrystallizing anneal. As rolled, there was a change in anisotropy with degree of reduction, but all alloys were reasonably isotropic in tension when annealed. X-ray diffraction photograms illustrated the kinds of orientations present, but were not correlated with the properties. Bakarian8 has described a method of determining quantitatively a preferred orientation, and illustrated the method by applying it to pure magnesium and two of its alloys. This method was used in the present work as a basis for correlating the strength properties with the texture.

Jan 1, 1965

By Raymond Ward

IN the past few years several papers have appeared dealing with different aspects of the oxidation of dilute alloys, especially with respect to the formation of internal oxides or subscales. Subscale has been defined1 as that layer or zone of oxide particles precipitated in a matrix of metallic metal in which the oxide particles are dispersed uniformly and occur by diffusion of the oxygen inward from the metal surface. Alloys composed of a solvent metal more noble than the alloying elements are subject to subscaling or internal oxidation. In these alloys the solute must be present in such quantities that if the alloy is exposed to an oxidizing atmosphere at elevated temperatures, the rate of diffusion of the oxygen into the metal will be greater than the rate of diffusion of the solute outward. There is a composition range of the iron-silicon system that falls into this classification. Knowledge of the nature and rates of oxidation of iron-silicon alloys is of great commercial importance, but very little information of this nature is available. Darken2 recently has made calculations to show the limits of concentration of silicon for which subscales are produced in iron-silicon alloys; however, the main thesis of his paper was to analyze and to explain the already existing data. The purpose of this paper is to present the effect of com position, temperature, time, and atmosphere on the type of scale-metal layer obtained and to give some qualitative indication of the effect of these variables on the rates of oxidation. Since this paper is a study of silicon steels that are available commercially, extremely low-silicon and high-silicon alloys are not included. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The alloys used in the experiment were taken from heats of silicon steel that ranged in analysis from 0.70 to 5.8 per cent silicon. This composition range takes in most of the commercial silicon steels. In Table I are listed the compositions of alloys used. Other than iron and silicon, the alloys normally contained approximately the following impurities: carbon, 0.03 per cent; manganese, 0.07; phosphorus, 0.008; sulphur, 0.02; copper, 0.07; tin, 0.01, and from nil to a trace of chromium, nickel and copper. All of the alloys used were melted in open-hearth furnaces, except where otherwise noted, and were hot-rolled to 0.100-in. plate. Samples approximately 1/2 in. square were then cut from these materials. So that the surface conditions of the samples used for oxidation would be standardized, each sample was ground through 000 emery paper immediately before oxidation. Two different techniques were employed in carrying out the oxidizing treatments. One consisted simply of heating the samples with free access to air. In this treatment the samples were set on edge on a refrac-

Jan 1, 1945

THERE can be little doubt in the mind of anyone of the great interest which has been provoked in the mining and petroleum industry by the com-paratively new geophysical methods of prospecting, after the sessions at this year's meeting of the Institute. Not only were the sessions very well attended but every¬one seemed most attentive. Although the discussion was somewhat limited in general, that may well be at-tributed to the newness of the subject. Two sessions on this subject were planned originally, but these gave insufficient time for the presentation of all the papers prepared and a third session was abso-lutely necessary. The first meeting dealt entirely with the gravity methods and was completed in the scheduled time owing to the fact that but two of the five papers listed were read. The second session was devoted to magnetic and electrical methods, the completion of which had to be carried over into the third period of geophysics. The first session on geophysical prospecting, and in-cidentally the first scheduled Institute meeting devoted entirely to this subject, was most appropriately opened by E. L. DeGolyer, the chairman of the session. It was through the efforts of Mr. DeGolyer that the first gravity work, as applied to prospecting, was under-taken in this country. Again most appropriately, the first paper presented was given by Donald C. Barton, who carried on the first work with the Eötvös torsion balance in America and aided materially in its development. A subject, the theory of which is so difficult to understand as it is generally presented, was so clearly illustrated and ex-plained by the speaker that even a novice could grasp the fundamentals. Dr. Barton, in showing actual re-sults obtained in torsion balance surveys with the in-terpretation of the sane and later drilling records, was free in stating that there are many limitations to the field in which this and the other geophysical instruments may be successfully employed. This paper called for considerable discussion relative to the application of the torsion balance to gravity surveys over various types of structures. During the course of this discus-sion a very important point was emphasized by the chairman, namely, that for successful application of any or all of the scientific methods of prospecting, a back-ground of experience is absolutely necessary to serve as a basis for further work. This can only be secured by contributions from the results of actual prospecting work.

Jan 3, 1928

By W. N. Lacey, R. H. Olds, B. H. Sage

The volumetric behavior of five mixtures of black oil and natural gas and of two mixtures of condensate and natural gas from a field in the San Joaquin Valley was experimentally established. This work was carried out at roo°, I9o° and 250°F in the pressure interval between 400 and 5000 psi. The viscosity of the liquid phase of four mixtures of black oil and natural gas was experimentally measured in the above-indicated temperature and pressure intervals. The effect of methane upon the precipitation of bitumen from the black oil was studied at 230°F. Introduction The solution of a number of the economical and technological problems which arise in connection with petroleum production is dependent upon the availability of the necessary quantitative information covering the materials involved. This requires data concerning physical properties of naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures at the pressures and temperatures characteristic of underground petroleum reservoirs. The experimental determination of the desired data for each situation encountered is relatively time-consuming. However, it is considered to yield results sufficiently more reliable than those obtained from correlations to justify the effort. For these reasons there was undertaken a laboratory investigation of the viscosity of the liquid phase and the volu- metric and phase behavior of mixtures of oil and gas samples obtained from wells in a field located in the San Joaquin Valley. Terminology The nomenclature of petroleum engineering is not at present entirely standardized. Many commonly used technical terms are not everywhere given the same meanings. For the purposes of this paper the following definitions will be adopted: Black oil refers to the dark-colored, hydrocarbon liquid obtained when the producing horizon of the well lies partly in the condensed hydrocarbon phase of the reservoir. Condensate is the term applied to the relatively volatile, pale yellow or amber-colored hydrocarbon liquid that is often obtained from the surface separator system when the producing horizon of the well lies in the gas cap of the reservoir. The gas obtained from the surface separator system is called natural gas regardless of whether the well is producing black oil or condensate. As might be expected from the multi-component character of naturally occurring hydrocarbon materials, the compositions of black oil, condensate and natural gas are subject to considerable variation depending upon the temperatures and pressures prevailing in the surface separator system as well as upon the overall composition of the material produced from the reservoir. In order to obtain samples capable of reproducing the total hydrocarbon material produced by the well, all oil and gas mixtures used in this investigation were com-

Jan 1, 1949

By E. I. Larsen, E. F. Swazy, F. R. Hensel

Experience has indicated that hard bronzes are not suitable for bearing applications where high bearing loads and speeds are involved. It is the general practice to utilize softer materials for these purposes, such as copper, lead, silver, babbitt, lead-base alloys, and more recently aluminum-base alloys, preferably supported by a steel backing. It was the objective of the present investigation to study a new material produced by powder metallurgical methods susceptible to precipitation-hardening. Test MAteriaIs Preliminary tests were made with compacts containing copper, nickel and silicon in quantities sufficient to form 3 to 5 per cent nickel silicide. It mas found that this type of alloy was susceptible to the formation of a soft surface shell when sintered in tank hydrogen. The depth of the shell depended On the length of sintering time and sintering temperature, and varied in thickness from a few thousandths to as much as One eighth inch. This soft shell resulted from the preferential oxidation of silicon, thereby reducing the efficiency of age-hardening by the nickel silicide compound. The body of the sintered compacts below the soft shell could be precipitation-hardened to a hardness of 70 to 85 Rockwell B, by quenching from goo°C. and age-hardening at 450°C. A series of tests was made with various addition agents, in order to decrease the rate of preferential oxidation, and it was found that phosphorus was most beneficial in this respect. After considerable experimentation, the following nominal com-position was accepted as standard: 2.4 per cent nickel; 0.8 silicon; 0.3 phosphorus; balance copper. The physical propertties and certain bearing properties of this alloy are described in the present paper Preparation of Compacts Several methods of incorporating the hardening ingredient (nickel silicide) were studied. Compacts formed from copper, nickel and silicon powders were found to be inferior to those fabricated from prealloyed nickel silicide master alloys, because of the rapid oxidation of pure silicon during sintering. The use of a prealloyed nickel silicide hardener containing 25 per cent silicon and 75 per cent nickel could be further improved by preparing a master alloy, incorporating nickel, silicon, phosphorus and copper, having the following nominal composition~ 25 per cent nickel; 7 silicon; 3 phosphorus 64 copper. This alloy is brittle in the cast condition and can be readily powdered. Sintering Procedure The blended powders were pressed at '5 to 40 tons per sq' in., the pressure depending on the size and shape of the compacts. Sintering was carried out in hydrogen or cracked ammonia atmospheres at

Jan 1, 1946

By E. I. Larsen, E. F. Swazy, F. R. Hensel

Experience has indicated that hard bronzes are not suitable for bearing applications where high bearing loads and speeds are involved. It is the general practice to utilize softer materials for these purposes, such as copper, lead, silver, babbitt, lead-base alloys, and more recently aluminum-base alloys, preferably supported by a steel backing. It was the objective of the present investigation to study a new material produced by powder metallurgical methods susceptible to precipitation-hardening. Test MAteriaIs Preliminary tests were made with compacts containing copper, nickel and silicon in quantities sufficient to form 3 to 5 per cent nickel silicide. It mas found that this type of alloy was susceptible to the formation of a soft surface shell when sintered in tank hydrogen. The depth of the shell depended On the length of sintering time and sintering temperature, and varied in thickness from a few thousandths to as much as One eighth inch. This soft shell resulted from the preferential oxidation of silicon, thereby reducing the efficiency of age-hardening by the nickel silicide compound. The body of the sintered compacts below the soft shell could be precipitation-hardened to a hardness of 70 to 85 Rockwell B, by quenching from goo°C. and age-hardening at 450°C. A series of tests was made with various addition agents, in order to decrease the rate of preferential oxidation, and it was found that phosphorus was most beneficial in this respect. After considerable experimentation, the following nominal com-position was accepted as standard: 2.4 per cent nickel; 0.8 silicon; 0.3 phosphorus; balance copper. The physical propertties and certain bearing properties of this alloy are described in the present paper Preparation of Compacts Several methods of incorporating the hardening ingredient (nickel silicide) were studied. Compacts formed from copper, nickel and silicon powders were found to be inferior to those fabricated from prealloyed nickel silicide master alloys, because of the rapid oxidation of pure silicon during sintering. The use of a prealloyed nickel silicide hardener containing 25 per cent silicon and 75 per cent nickel could be further improved by preparing a master alloy, incorporating nickel, silicon, phosphorus and copper, having the following nominal composition~ 25 per cent nickel; 7 silicon; 3 phosphorus 64 copper. This alloy is brittle in the cast condition and can be readily powdered. Sintering Procedure The blended powders were pressed at '5 to 40 tons per sq' in., the pressure depending on the size and shape of the compacts. Sintering was carried out in hydrogen or cracked ammonia atmospheres at

Jan 1, 1946

By C. L. Mantell

When considered from the viewpoint of world annual output, tin is one of the rarest metals. Its annual production is exceeded by that of iron, copper, lead, zinc. aluminum, magnesium; probably by that of the ferroalloys of manganese, chromium, and silicon, and possibly by the world production of sodium; while it exceeds only the output of such common metals as nickel, antimony, mercury, tungsten, molybdenum, silver, gold and the precious metals. Cassiterite, or tinstone, until the second World War was the only mineral that was an important source of tin. This mineral is frequently called "tin ore." The use of the term should be restricted to the ore containing the mineral, and not, in addition, to the concentrates of the mineral obtained from the ore or from stanniferous alluvial deposits. There is a general misuse of the term "tin ore" in the Malay Peninsula and adjacent localities, particularly where most of the mineral is obtained from secondary stanniferous deposits. The term "cassit-erite" is exclusively used in mineralogical, geological, and other scientific writings; it is unfortunate that it is not mole frequently used when referring to the occurrence of the mineral on an economic scale. Ores "Tinstone" js a very convenient old English term deserving a more frequent use. Tinstone is a dioxide of tin, or stannic oxide. When chemically Pure, as in the very rare transparent variety, it has a metallic content of 78.6 per cent tin. Frequently, however, the crystals and grains contain appreciable amounts of impurities, chiefly iron and tantalum. The impurities here referred to are those actually in the mineral itself. Tinstone usually has a deep brown or black color with an adamantine luster. Several other colored varieties are known, among them red ruby tin, yellow rosin tin, and yellow wax tin. the names jn each case being descriptive of the mineral's appearance. Ainalite is a variety of cassiterite con-taining almost g per cent of tantalum pentoxide. Sparable tin, tooth tin, and needle tin, as a result of their acute dite-tragonal pyramidal crystalline form, re-ceive their names from their crystallo-graphic appearance. Wood tin is a compact variety of cassiterite composed of radiating fibers resembling dry wood. Toad's-eye tin is a similar variety on a smaller scale in which the fibers appear to resemble the eye of a toad. Stream tin is water-worn tin-stone. Float tin is sometimes employed to describe the cassiterite occurring in soil derived from the weathered surface of a mineralized area. Stannite is an ore of tin of lesser impor-tance than cassiterite. It is a sulphide of tin, copper, and iron, sometimes known as tin pyrites or bell-metal ore. Its chemical com-position is sometimes expressed by the for-mula Cu,S.FeS.SnSz with zinc usually present in varying quantities. The tin con-tent varies from 22 to 27 per cent and there is about 29 per cent of copper, 13 per cent of iron, and 30 Per cent of sulphur.

Jan 1, 1944

By George F. Weaton, Carleton C. Long, H. I. Najarian

Partial descriptions of the operation of the St. Joseph Lead Company's Joseph-town smelter have been published. In, 1936 the electrothermic production of zinc oxide was described;' in 1939 appeared a description2 of the electrothermic method of producing zinc metal. Inasmuch as the plant capacity has more than doubled, and in view of the fact that operating practices have improved greatly since these publications, it seems worth while to prepare a fresh description of the present-day elec-trothermic zinc plant and practice. Josephtown smelter is situated on the south side of the Ohio River about 3 miles below its confluence with the Beaver River. In addition to river barge, the smelter is served by Pennsylvania state highway No. 18 and by a spur line of the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad (N.Y.C.). A recent extension of this spur line connects with the Pennsylvania Railroad. As originally contemplated the plant was to handle only the product of the com-pany's own mines in St. Lawrence County, New york, but owing to the incessant demand for zinc and zinc oxide, it has been necessary to supplement New York concentrates with foreign ores (principally from Quebcc and the Argentine). The general operational procedure followed comprises roasting the sulphide con-centrates, converting the sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid, preparation of a strong-structure sinter from the calcine, crushing &lid sizing of coke, reduction of coke-sinter mixture by electrothermic means, condensation of the evolved zinc vapor to make zinc metal or burning of the zinc vapor to make zinc oxide, collection and packing of the zinc oxide. Dusts recovered by the roaster and sinter Cottrells are treated in the leach plant for separation of lead sulphate, cadmium metal and zinc sulphate. The general flowsheet is shown in Fig. I. Principal Items OF Equipment Roaster Plant Concentrate drier, 6-ft. 'ia. by 4O ft. 5 in., countercurrent, direct gas-fired. 3500-~on concentrate storage in three vertical steel tanks. Five modified Nichols-Herreshoff twelve-hearth roasters, 21 ft. 6 in. in diameter. Four fans for shaft-cooling air. One threedrum Stirling water-tube waste-heat boiler, 4'8 hp., 200 1b. Per sq. in., with connections to upper and lower balloon flues. Direct gas-fired countercurrent rotary-kiln roaster for Cottrell dust. Necessary conveying equipment, described below. Instrumentation consists of: draft indicators, (3d hearth); various manometers; pyrometer served by thermocouples in each hearth, entrance and exit of waste-heat Joseph. entrance and exit of each hot Cottrell; roaster draft recorder and shaft air-pressure controller; temperature recorder and controller (10th and 12th hearths); SO* recorder (waste-heat boiler n

Jan 1, 1944

By W. Bonfield

The microstrain characteristics of a polycrystal-line Cu 1.9 wt pet Be precipitation-hardening alloy have been determined for various conditions of aging. The friction stress remained constant for all the conditions investigated, whereas the microscopic yield stress (the stress to produce a plastic strain of 2 x 10-8 in. per in.) and the three-stage stress-strain curve in the microstrain region were sensitive to changes in dislocation and precipitate distribution. Correlations between the measurements of microplasticity and electron-nzicroscope observations of substructure are considered. ALTHOUGH the macroscopic mechanical properties of Cu 1.5 to 2.0 wt pet Be precipitation-harden ing alloys were established' in some detail, there has been no previous investigation of the nature of microyield-ing in these alloys. This paper describes a high-sensitivity extensometer determination of microplasticity in polycrystalline Cu 1.9 wt pet Be, in which the friction stress, the microscopic yield stress (the stress to produce a plastic strain of 2 x 10-6 in. per in.), and the rate of strain hardening in the micro-strain region were measured for various conditions of precipitation. The structural changes accompanying aging in this alloy were examined using transmission electron microscopy, a study which differed from previous investigations as, in order to minimize grain boundary precipitation effects,' the solution-treated alloy was cold-rolled to 40 pet reduction prior to aging. Hence the extent of recovery and recrystalliza-tion, as well as the variation of precipitate morphology and distribution, were assessed. From these results possible correlations between the microstrain characteristics and the observed precipitate and dislocation structure are considered. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The material investigated was a commercial copper beryllium alloy (Berylco 25), which had a com- position of 1.9 wt pet Be and 0.2 wt pet Co. The alloy was solution-treated at 800°C, quenched in water, and then cold-rolled to 40 pct reduction. Tensile specimens of gage length 1 in. and rectangular cross section of 0.18 by 0.06 in. were prepared from the solution-treated, cold-rolled material and aged for 15 min, 2, 24, and 100 hr at 315°C and 24 hr at 425°C to produce a range of precipitate structure. The hardness values associated with these conditions are listed in Table I. It can be seen that a maximum value is obtained after 2 hr at 315oC, which decreases with continued time at temperature to a minimum after 24 hr at 425°C. For comparison some as-solution-treated specimens were also aged for 2 hr at 315°C. The specimens heat-treated to a given condition were examined in two ways. First, the nature and distribution of the precipitate and dislocation structure was characterized using transmission electron microscopy. Thin foils were obtained from the specimens by electrolytic polishing in a 30 pet nitric acid-alcohol solution at -20oC, and were examined in an RCA EMU 3 electron microscope. Second, the mi-croplastic behavior of the specimens was measured with a Tuckerman strain gage, using the load-unload technique previously described2, 3 to determine the friction stress, the microscopic yield stress, and the variation of plastic microstrain with stress. RESULTS 1) Structural Changes During Aging. a) Annealing Processes. The solution-treated, cold-rolled Cu 1.9 wt pet Be had an irregular dislocation-cell structure,

Jan 1, 1968

By B. E. Field

COBALT is a silvery white metal with a slight bluish cast, strongly resembling nickel in its appearance and properties, notably its resistance to corrosion, although its alloys with other metals differ quite decidedly in their properties from those of nickel. The name cobalt was derived from the German "Kobold" meaning goblin and this came to be applied to the cobalt minerals which, although they resembled ores, did not readily yield metal when smelted by the primitive processes available in the Middle Ages. Cobalt minerals were used as pigments by potters and glass workers before the Christian era. Cobalt blue glass was found in the tombs of the Egyptians and in the ruins of Troy, and many colors used by the ancient Greeks and Romans contained cobalt. The ancients were entirely unaware that the colors they used were caused by cobalt and the metal itself was only isolated about the middle of the eighteenth century by Brandt although the preparation of cobalt compounds had been carried on in a small way ever since the opening of the silver-cobalt deposits at Schneeberg, Germany, in 1470. The metal is fairly hard, with a density when pure of 8.81 in the cast state and 8.92 after working. The com¬mercial grade of cobalt has a density of about 8.75 in the cast state. The atomic weight is 58.97. The Brinell hardness of the pure metal is 124; that of the commercial grade varies from as low as 100 to as high as 138, depending upon the impurities present. Pure cobalt has a sharp melting point at 1478°C. The tensile strength of the pure metal in the cast condition is said to be higher than that of any other pure metal. Kalmus gives it as 34,400 lb. per sq. in. for cast unannealed metal; the effect of annealing at 850 to 900°C. is to raise the strength slightly. The yield point is close to the ultimate strength and the reduction in area and elongation are both low. Mechanical working raises the tensile strength of pure cobalt rapidly and in the form of wire it will be over 100,000 lb. per sq. in. The presence of small quantities of carbon in the commercial metal raises the tensile strength to as high as 61,000 lb. per sq. in., the reduction in area and elongation being raised at the same time to approximately 20 per cent.

Jan 1, 1933

By James E. Howard

AT the request of the Council of the Institute, I have the honor to submit the following remarks upon the Program of Tests under which the current work of the Watertown Arsenal Testing Laboratory is carried on, which comprises, among other items, the tests of steel ingot metal and derivative shapes. The intended scope of the tests may be illustrated by extracts from the descriptive part of the program as submitted by the Laboratory under date of April 17, 1907, and subsequently approved by the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A. Under Item 1, Ingot Metal-Open hearth, acid and basic; Bessemer, acid and basic; crucible; fluid compressed and uncompressed-descriptive remarks were made as follows ; " A thorough, fundamental inquiry into the physical properties of steel necessarily begins with the ingot metal. Investigations, having for their object the improvement of steels, should also begin with the ingot. A knowledge of the ingot structure is essential for judging of the subsequent behavior or appearance of the metal. Under ordinary conditions, so little information is obtained from the ingot in individual cases that practically none of importance is acquired. These remarks have particular reference to the state of physical and structural soundness of the steel. Questions of chemical composition, segregation, piping and the grosser cavities have frequently been given attention. Defects of continuity of structure, which manifest themselves in the working; of the metal, and at the final stages cause distrust in the finished forging, have generally been neglected. ? The range in physical properties in a given composition of metal, as shown in Tests of Metals, 1902 and 1903, is very great. Tests are there found which, when the results are

Mar 1, 1908

By Eugene Grace

IN THE careers of the men to whom I have referred we find typified the development of the chief prob-lems of engineering. The first is to shape and direct the forces of nature and thus to bring the world's resources to add to the comfort and welfare of man-kind. That, in a word, is the problem of production. Engineers have made a supreme contribution to the solution of that problem. But I feel that we have two somewhat newer branches of engineering which must command more and more of our attention. Those are what might be termed commercial and human engineering. Of what value is all our efficiency in pro-duction if we do not distribute efficiently, economically and effectively? And of what value is any of it unless we can add to the happiness and deeper satisfaction of those engaged in industry, as well as those who enjoy its -products? I predict that the outstanding advances in business over the next ten years will be in improved merchan-dising and distributing methods. Herein lies a wide field of opportunity for the engineer. We have briefly reviewed certain qualities of engi-neers who have become successful business executives. Is it possible for us to say that the material success of all these men was due to any one characteristic com-mon to each one of them? Indeed, I venture to assert that there is one quality which, in the last analysis, is determining as to whether any roan shall realize material success in this world of ours. That quality-so notable in the character of each one of the men I have named-is sound judgment. Moments arise in every life when it is necessary to say "yes" or to say "no" to a particular proposition or to a proposed line of action. It is the man who says "yes" at the proper time and "no" at the proper time who, in the final analysis, realizes business success. The ability to do this wisely is the mark of sound judg-ment, which is necessary in a business executive. I have known many business men seemingly slow in their mental processes, possessed apparently, of little imagination and of none of the flair which gives fasci-nation to so many characters, and yet who, when crises come-be they big or be they little-are able so to steer their business courses that they move in the right direction instead of into shallow waters or upon the rocks of trouble.

Jan 4, 1928

By H. L. Talbot, R. S. Young, A. Golledge

The differentiation of oxidized forms of lead from lead sulphide in complex products by chemical analysis is of considerable importance to certain mining and metallurgical companies. A method for the separation of "oxide" lead, (non-sulphide), from sulphide lead, based on the solubility of the former and virtual insolubility of the latter in concentrated ammonium acetate solution, has been employed for many years in the industry.1,2 Unfortunately this solvent, while satisfactory for lead sulphate and carbonate, is without action on lead phosphates or vanadates, with the result that at .Rhodesia Broken Hill Development Co. where these latter minerals are present, they have counted as sulphides when using this procedure. For the control of operations in the new concentrator it became necessary to have a closer check on sulphide lead than could be obtained by the only current method of differentiating this constituent from oxidized lead. For some time this problem has engaged our attention, and after a large number of solvents had been tried, the following procedure was evolved. Like all methods depending on selective solution in a com- plex material, it will not give 100 pct separation into oxide and sulphide portions. Because of the ease of oxidation of galena this is almost an impossibility. Our procedure will, however, give a recovery of 99-100 pct of the oxidized lead, contaminated with very small quantities of lead sulphide, and a corresponding recovery of 97-98 pct of the sulphide lead. The procedure is simple and reproducible, and gives results quite .satisfactory for routine control purposes. Experimental For this work standard samples of the following pure lead minerals were obtained from Broken Hill, Northern Rhodesia. These were hand-picked specimens, and were carefully ground to —200 mesh. Since it was realized that a fair-sized sample would be necessary for this work to thoroughly test the large number of procedures we had in mind, a compromise had to be effected between a few grams of very pure minerals and a large sample of lower grade material. For this work the presence of gangue was not deleterious, so long as the oxide lead minerals did not contain lead sulphide, and vice versa. Table I shows the lead minerals used, and their total lead content, both theoretical and actual. Apart from the pyro-morphite the minerals are seen by analysis to be quite pure. Many solutions were tried in an effort to dissolve the oxidized lead minerals and

Jan 1, 1949

By William Sellers

tested without knowing anything of their chemical composition. I had these pieces separately placed upon 10-inch bearings under a 7-gross ton lianlrner, a piece of 2½-inch round iron laid upon them as a fuller, and the hammer allotved to fall from 20 inches above the fuller, which, according to Haswell, gave a ldow of 67.75 gross tons. The pieces were then turned orcr, the fuller placed upon the convex surface, and the harnnler allowed to fall from 13 inches above the fuller, giving a blow of 58.46 gross tons. You will see that the rails do aot show ally bigrls of ruptnre, and their color at the points of torture prove them to have been absolutely cold when the test was made. I thirk these rails ought to be reasonably safe in the track. As you see by this piece of the head of one of these rails, I had it plarred, and then some teeth cut in it by a cold clrisel, and one-half of them pounded down with a hammer. The teeth of my rack did not break off. The analyses of these rails substquently made are: I. 11. Carbon,... 0.110 0.880 Silicon,..0.050 0.058 Phosphorus ,..0.086 0.082 Manganese,.. 0.042 0 840 In conclusion, I will say that Dr. Dudley's paper as a contribu tion to our knowledge of steel rails is valuable and interesting, but I protest against his conclusions king reoeived as manufacturing or comtnercial axioms. From its being presented in the form-of a report to the leading railroad of the country from one of its trusted officers, as well as from the tone of the concluding deductions, it is liable to be so received by railroad men. If any railroad com pany desires rails made under either of Dr. Dudley's formulas, and are willing to pay a price large enough to cover the loss in making them, dl and good; but so long as the rail makers are compelled to gwrrantee the wear of their rails for a given number of years, justice reqnires that. the composition of the steel from which these rails are made should be left to them. WILLIAM SELLERS, PHILADELPHIA: The very interesting paper upon the wear of steel rails that has just been read preseak the record of a series of investigations that are extreniely valuable, and the deduction that bas been drawn from the results noted seems to be unavoidable; the tests, however, to which it is proposed steel rails shall be subjected hereafter, with a view to determine their quality, sllould

Jan 1, 1881