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By George Breyer

DURING the past 25 years the steelmaker has experienced some difficulty in producing steel to meet the standards established by the metallurgist. In contrast to the past, when a chemical specification of broad limits was the only requirement, he now has to employ such tests as microscopic, macroscopic, tensile, impact, Magnaflux and even X-ray and supersonic. The development of these tests has more than set the pace for a manufacturing process of which the exactness still hinges to an important degree on the ability of the furnace operator. In our efforts to produce steel, and especially alloy steel, to meet the exactness of modern engineering specification, many factors must be taken into account. It is not sufficient to make a good heat of steel in the furnace and then be satisfied that the job is done, since there are many pitfalls between the furnace and the finished product. The literature abounds with information on melting practices, deoxidation methods and slag control, but the lack of positive information about what happens when the steel is teemed into molds is quite evident. Such questions as what is the proper mold size, shape and thickness; which is the best mold coating; what is the best rate of pour for any given steel, and what is the effect of cooling rates on quality, are still answered by opinions. It is acknowledged that a poor heat of steel cannot be improved in the pouring pit. On the other hand, a good heat can be ruined by improper handling after it leaves the furnace.

Jan 1, 1947

By C. B. Jordan

LAVES and Wallbaum' have described TiRu and TiOs as having the same structure as TiFe; they had previously described the latter compound as having the CsCl structure. On the other hand, a careful investigation of the structure of TiFe by Duwez and Taylor- ailed to reveal the ordered CsCl structure, finding instead a random arrangement of titanium and iron atoms on the points of a body-centered-cubic space lattice. Consequently, it is not clear whether Laves and Wallbaum proposed the ordered or the disordered structure for TiRu and TiOs. In order to settle this question as to the structural type and to obtain values of the lattice para- meters (thereby completely determining the structures), the present investigation was undertaken. Samples having the compositions TiRu and TiOs were weighed out accurately from iodide titanium supplied by the New Jersey Zinc Co., ruthenium powder from Goldsmith Brothers Smelting & Refining Co., and osmium powder from Wildberg Brothers Smelting & Refining Co. No analysis was made of any of these metals. According to the respective analyses of the suppliers, total impurities amount to less than 0.03 pct in the titanium and to less than 0.5 pct in the osmium. The purity of the ruthenium is not known. The alloys were prepared by arc melting in a furnace of the type described by Schramm, Gordon, and Kaufmann.9 pecimens for X-ray diffraction were obtained by crushing the ingots and passing the resulting powders through a 200 mesh screen. Diffraction patterns were made with a powder

Jan 1, 1956

By Josef Westesson

No question in the metallurgical chemistry of the present day seems to be so difficult to agree upon as the determination of phosphorus in iron and steel. To my knowledge, there are at present at least three different methods in use in the iron laboratories of the United States, viz.: The citric acid method, the molybdate-magnesia method, and the direct molybdate method,—the last-named method having been lately adopted. Each of these methods has its advocates, who take every pains to prove its advantages, and the incorrectness of the others; and much has been written for the purpose of securing the use of a standard method—as yet, however, without any result. There is no doubt, or ought to be none, that each of these methods gives correct results, when it is carefully conducted and every precaution is taken. But it is not only correct results that we want nowa-days. The demand is great, also, for getting results in the shortest possible time. I think it has been sufficiently proved that the direct molybdate method, the weighing of the precipitate, answers well in both respects. Being a pupil of Prof. Eggertz, I have myself used his method for years until quite recently, as it is described by Mr. Troilius in our Transactions, vol. x., p. 166 (but with some slight modifications), and I can safely say that the results of this method agree well with those of the molybdate-magnesia method. I have, moreover, been checked, in a few instances, by some of the

Jan 1, 1885

By Ralph Hultgren

Few phase diagrams of alloys composed of two transition metals have been adequately studied, probably because of the high melting points involved. Transition metals are the elements that have inner shells incompletely filled with electrons. They comprise groups lIIa to VIIIa of the periodic table, including more than half of all metals. We have chosen to study two systems whose comparatively low melting points allowed the alloys to be melted in a molybdenum resistance furnace. The nickel-palladium system proved to consist of a simple series of solid solutions, but iron-palladium manifested several remarkable features. The main characteristics of the latter diagram were decisively established, but lack of time prevented precise determination of phase boundaries. The gamma to alpha transformation in this system is unusual and warrants further study. Grigorjewl determined the liquidus and solidus of the iron-palladium system by thermal methods. He found a minimum melting point, but no eutectic. He also found that palladium lowered the gamma to alpha and raised the gamma to delta transformation temperatures of iron, with a complete series of solid solutions existing between gamma iron and palladium. His measurements also indicated a compound or quptbr-lattice near the composition FePda. Jellinghausz found that annealing at 500" C. greatly increased 111 magnetic coercive force of an alloy of composition FePd. X-ray diffraction photographs showed that a tetragonal ordered phase had formed during the anneal. Hocart and Fallot made magnetic measurements over the entire range of composition. They found that less than 5 atomic per cent Pd

Jan 1, 1939

By Ralph Hultgren

Few phase diagrams of alloys composed of two transition metals have been adequately studied, probably because of the high melting points involved. Transition metals are the elements that have inner shells incompletely filled with electrons. They comprise groups lIIa to VIIIa of the periodic table, including more than half of all metals. We have chosen to study two systems whose comparatively low melting points allowed the alloys to be melted in a molybdenum resistance furnace. The nickel-palladium system proved to consist of a simple series of solid solutions, but iron-palladium manifested several remarkable features. The main characteristics of the latter diagram were decisively established, but lack of time prevented precise determination of phase boundaries. The gamma to alpha transformation in this system is unusual and warrants further study. Grigorjewl determined the liquidus and solidus of the iron-palladium system by thermal methods. He found a minimum melting point, but no eutectic. He also found that palladium lowered the gamma to alpha and raised the gamma to delta transformation temperatures of iron, with a complete series of solid solutions existing between gamma iron and palladium. His measurements also indicated a compound or quptbr-lattice near the composition FePda. Jellinghausz found that annealing at 500" C. greatly increased 111 magnetic coercive force of an alloy of composition FePd. X-ray diffraction photographs showed that a tetragonal ordered phase had formed during the anneal. Hocart and Fallot made magnetic measurements over the entire range of composition. They found that less than 5 atomic per cent Pd

Jan 1, 1939

By Max Boehmer

(Pittsburg Meeting, March, 1910.) AFTER 30 years of development and after an output of $350,000,000 in value of gold, silver, lead, zinc, and copper, there has not been published a satisfactory explanation of the origin of the immense deposits of the Leadville district. The original examination find survey of Leadville by members of the U. S. Geological Survey was a most magnificent piece of work, but their attempt to explain the origin of the ores was based upon the then-accepted theory of lateral secretion, originated by Sandberger, which theory was afterwards disproved in many cases by further development in numerous districts. This theory contended that the ore in the veins had been leached by surface-waters from the eruptive rocks in the immediate vicinity, and it had its origin in the fact that the neighboring eruptive rocks all contained, to an appreciable degree, the several metals found in the ore-deposits. But the practical miner, reasoning in a simple manner from the condition of things as he found them underground, soon discovered the fallacy of this proposition. He reasoned that, in the case of the Leadville deposits, this theory could not be true, because, if the ores were leached from the overlying eruptive rocks by surface-waters, they would as a matter of necessity be controlled by the action of gravity, and the main bodies would collect in- natural depressions of the underlying limestone, and at all points where such depressions existed. But this was not in accord with the channels of ore as he found there ; and hence the theory of lateral secretion in this district was never accepted. Another objection to it consisted in the fact that large areas within the ore-bearing district contained no ores whatever, although their formation was the same, and the same limestones were covered by the same thick sheet of

Feb 1, 1910

By Persifor Frazer

The section along the left bank of the Susquehanna, in Lancaster County, from Falmouth to the Maryland line, which the writer made in 1877 to accompany his report on that county, was redrawn by Professor Lesley, as stated in the prefatory'letter to Vol. CCC. (p. x.).* As then stated, neither the numerous data, nor the general features of the structure obtained by the writer, were changed ; but enough was done to make a discrepancy between the text and the section as given; and some important points were made less clear in the published section than they were in the MS. map. Amongst other portions of the section, that between the railroad stations, 1190 to 1224, gives the impression on the published maps of a much too definite superposition. A few words will be devoted to this region in the following communication. There is absolutely no room to doubt the structure for about four miles on .each side of the Tocquan axis. The dips are gentle, and in opposite directions, and the lithological characters constant within ordinary limits of variation, nor do these characters resemble those of the rocks which flank these gneisses and mica schists to the northwest and the southeast. For the same reasons it is evident that the rocks which occur within these eight miles or so, represent an horizon below the basement of the fossiliferous or palaezoic series. Not only have no fossils been found, but their lithologieal characters are unmistakably eozeic. But on the upper and lower margins of this

Jan 1, 1884

By James A. Lewis

It is the purpose of this paper to show the importance of sand characteristics, when combined with other physical data, in evaluating production obtained by secondary recovery operations, and to indicate the benefits to be gained from the application of these principles to primary production.

Jan 1, 1942

By C. R. Kuzell

The Editor desires to call attention to the charts in the paper of the above title which were published in the August Bulletin on pages 2190 and 2191. It was impracticable to include in the Bulletin. charts of sufficient size to be used as working diagrams for the direct determination of operating values, but the Institute is prepared to furnish copies of these charts on a large-size scale, at a moderate cost, to those who desire to have them for this purpose. CORRECTIONS Page 2185, line 3. For "is accessory apparatus" read "in accessory. apparatus." Page 2188. Substitute for lines 11 and 12: Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide, Cp = 6.50 + 0.0010T Hydrogen, Cp = 6.50 + 0.0009T

Jan 9, 1914

PRESIDENTS DAVID THOMAS 1871 R W RAYMOND 1872-1874 A L HOLLEY1875 ABRAM S HEWITT 1876 T STERRY HUNT 1877 ECKLEY B COXE 1878 - 1879 WILLIAM P SHINN 1880 WILLIAM METCALF 1881 RICHARD P ROTHWELL 1882 ROBERY W HUNT 1883 JAMES C, BAYLES 1884-1885 ROBERT H RICHARDS 1886 THOMAS EGLESTON 1887 WILLIAM B POTTER 1888 RICHARD PEARCE 1889 ADAM S HEWITT 1890 JOHN BIRKINBINE 1891-1892 H M HOWE 1893 JOHN FRITZ 1894 J D WEEKS 1895 E G SPILSBURY 1896

Jan 1, 1923

By Leonard Waldo

The recent and rapid development of the physics of engineering materials at temperatures as low as that of liquid air and as high as that of the electric are, has drawn renewed attention to the absence of tables, properly printed and spaced, for the convenient and accurate translation of temperature from centigrade to Fahrenheit scales and vice versa. It is to be noted that the Fahrenheit scale is the almost universal usage in foundries and shops in the United States, though the laboratories of the same works employ the centigrade notation. The growing use of the electric furnace in Germany and France calls for much American citation all in centigrade high temperatures, and while the arithmetical calculation is simple, it becomes burdensome when often repeated. I have been surprised at the numerous reprints of Table I. from centigrade to Fahrenheit degrees, first privately printed for personal use, which have been made by works, blue-prints, text-books, and technical journals, and I hope that Table II., from Fahrenheit to centigrade degrees, will be equally useful. For mental calculation the easiest rule to convert centigrade into Fahrenheit is to add 32° to twice the centigrade reading less one-tenth of this product: Thus 1000' C. = 2000" — 200" + 32" = 1832" F., and to convert Fahrenheit to centigrade, subtract 32" from the Fahrenheit reading, multiply by 10 and divide by 2 and 9 successively : Thus 1000° F. = 1000° — 32° = 968° X 10 = 9680° - 2 = 4840° - 9 = 537.77° C. Another and often very convenient method is by 'use of a graphic construction as follows :

Jan 1, 1913

By J. C. Van de Water

In June the supply of M3 army demolition powder being used for mudcapping was depleted and we switched to 4 by 8, 60% Special Quarry Gelatin dynamite. This size cartridge has proved convenient, as a half stick will handle the average boulder. By keeping the gelatin in the paper while cutting it in two, there is little contact with the gelatin and therefore fewer headaches among the powdermen. To further help prevent the headache nuisance the men are furnished with plastic coated gloves. Boulder breaking costs as reported last year were $0.426 using M3. This year, 8180 boulders have been broken with M3 at a cost of $0.472 each and 7479 with 60% Quarry Gelatin at a cost of $0.660 each. This rise in cost is due entirely to the greater cost of the Gelatin as the method has not changed.

Jan 4, 1950

The co-operation of the members of the Institute is earnestly sought by the Committee on Nominations, recently appointed by the Board of Directors, in its work of formulating a ticket for officers and places falling vacant in the Board of Directors in February, 1916. The Committee must present the official ticket of nominations to the Board of Directors at its October meeting. Members are, therefore, urged to send promptly their nominations for officers and Directors in order that the Committee may have an opportunity to give them full consideration. The officers to be elected at the annual meeting in February, 1916, are: One officer, known as Director and President. Two officers, known as Director and Vice-President. Five officers, known as Director. The officers of the Institute whose terms expire are as follows: President, William L. Saunders (not eligible for re-election). Past President, Charles F. Rand. Vice-Presidents, Thomas H. Leggett, District 0; Fred W. Denton, District 4.

Jan 9, 1915

By P. Somasundaran, G. E. Agar

The role of calcium, phosphate, and fluoride species in determining the zeta potential of apatite in aqueous solutions was investigated in this study. The zeta potential of apatite was determined by streaming potential measurements over a wide range of concentrations of potassium nitrate, calcium nitrate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, and potassium fluoride solutions at various pH values. While the addition of phosphate made the apatite surface more negative at all pH values, calcium caused a significant increase of the zeta potential only when the zeta potential was negative. Fluoride addition had only a minor effect on the zeta potential, but both negative and positive values were increased.

Jan 1, 1973

By Kichizo Niwa, Toshio Yokokawa, Mitsuo Shimoji, Yoshihiko Watanabe, Satoshi Kado

A LTHOUGH a systematic research on diffusion in liquid metals has not been carried out, partial studies have been developed by various workers in several systems. A few recent papers among them have shown that this line of approach is quite useful for understanding the structure of the liquid state. Furthermore, it has been found in kinetic

Jan 1, 1958

By Walter B. Devereux

Metallic copper is a product of native metallurgy in various parts of Mexico, and by somewhat varied processes. While recently examining copper mines in the State of Jalisko, I had an opportunity of witnessing Mexican copper smelting by a process which I have not seen described, and which is interesting from the fact, that a fine quality of copper is produced from sulphurous ores in three metallurgical operations, and apparently without excessive loss. The process was carried on in buildings which were part of a plant erected by an American more than twenty-five years ago for the purpose of smelting and working copper. After a few years this man met with accidental death, and the works have been but little used since. Located in the centre of a high range of mountains, far from any town or seaport, and inaccessible except over difficult mule trails, these substantial buildings, filled with furnaces and heavy machinery,

Jan 1, 1883

By Edwin B. Johnson

The success of self-fluxed sinter in enhancing the operation of the blast furnace during the past few years has reasonably led to the assumption that the use of self-fluxed pellets might result in even greater furnace efficiencies. A great share of development work in agglomeration has been directed towards techniques related to the production of self-fluxed pellets, but no appreciable tonnage of self-fluxed pellets had been produced on a commercial scale until this past year when The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. produced 35,000 tons of such pellets by the grate kiln system at the Republic mine during the period May 21-June 5, 1962.

Jan 3, 1963

INTO their great Pacific Northwest counting house went the members of the Industrial Minerals Division recently, to count their blessings amidst the scenic grandeur and mineral wealth of the State of Washington. From their vantage point in Seattle, those who attended the IMD's fourth Pacific Northwest meeting turned their sights to the South and Southeast, scanned Montana, Idaho, Oregon and Utah, and predicted a very healthy economic future for their region. The praises of Idaho's booming phosphate industry were sung by Earl W. Murphy, secretary of that State's Chamber of Commerce. He said the establishment of Fort Hall, on the banks of the Snake River near Pocatello, first turned the eyes of the world toward what is now the center of the greatest known deposits of phosphate rock-the section adjacent to the common corners of Idaho, Wyoming and Utah. With the founding of Fort Hall, Mr. Murphy said, historians will also rank the construction of the first electric furnaces for the production of elemental phosphorous as equally significant in the commercial history of the West. Those furnaces were installed only last year by the Westvaco Chemical Div. of the Food Machinery & Chemical Corp. at Pocatello, at a cost of $8 million.

Jan 7, 1950

By John Suman

DURING the past few years the taking of cores in drilling with rotary equipment has been perfected to a remarkable degree in the Gulf Coast fields of Texas and Louisiana. Taking of cores is becoming quite a common thing, especially in the newer fields, and drillers are becoming expert in this work. The writer has seen cores 5 to 8 ft. long taken with great ease in wells as deep as 4500 ft. Coring is doing much to remove the prejudice which so many petroleum engineers seem to have against .the use of rotary drilling equipment for exploratory work. Some operators .are now claiming that when used with a reasonable amount of coring the rotary system is even more satis-factory than cable tools for exploring in certain territory. A case has recently been pointed out in the South Electra field of North Texas, where producing oil sands, passed over by cable-tool drillers, are being brought in with rotary equipment. It seems that in this particular territory the sands are rather thin. Cable-tool drilling was carried on for the most part in a wet hole and the red mud encountered in drilling caved into the hole very badly, so that the cuttings showed mostly red mud and the driller, thinking that the sand did not amount to anything, carried his water string through the sand. The later .operators, drilling into the sand with rotary equipment and coring it, found that it was well worth testing.

Jan 10, 1922

By Frank Kneeland

SAFETY FIRST is a popular motto-most mining companies have adopted it. It is probable, however, that in the majority of cases it is only a motto and gets no further than the office stationery or the bulletin board at the mine's entrance. In but few industries is there employed a greater diversity of machinery and mechanical devices than in coal mining. The list ranges all the way from mechanical stokers to wood-working machinery and undercutters. Many of these devices, particularly those employed in wood working, are extremely dangerous. In 1913, 23 per cent. of all fatalities occurring in coal mining in the U. S. were caused by machinery of some sort or other. Although the forms of accidents occurring with mining machinery are legion, they generally arise from one or more of five causes: (a) Falls from ladders, platforms, etc.; (b) coming in contact with moving machines or parts thereof; (c) electric shocks; (d) failure of some machine part; (e) mismanipulation of valves, levers, switches or other hand-operated controlling devices. The steps which may be taken to prevent accidents from the above causes are almost as numerous as the accidents themselves. There is, and can be, no panacea for all mishaps, nor for any one class of accidents. There is no mathematical or other formula that will bring immunity under any set of conditions. Common sense is the only guide. The remedy for the first-named class of accidents is simple and generally effective-namely, make the staging, ladder, platform, or other support, abundantly strong to carry any possible weight that it may be called upon to bear; provide ample railings on platforms or runways, and non-slipping feet on movable ladders.

Jan 1, 1915