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By Philip D. Pearson

CALAND Ore Co.'s dredging program has reached the halfway mark. The goal is to remove more than 160 million cu yd of lake bottom material overlying the iron orebody in Falls Bay of Steep Rock Lake, Ont. Two large dredges were constructed to remove this overburden, a layer of soil about 90 pct varved clay some 400 ft thick. Moisture content of the clay is high-approximately at the liquid limit of the soil. A few years ago, searching for additional reserves of ore, Inland Steel Co. looked toward Canada and the newly developed Steep Rock iron range. To this end an option agreement was signed Dec. 30, 1949, between Steep Rock Mines Ltd. and Caland Ore Co. Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of Inland Steel. Several drilling programs were conducted between this date and Jan. 1, 1953, when a 99-year lease was signed covering an area of 1249 acres. This lease calls for ore production to begin in 1960, with full production of 3 million tons per year by 1969.

Jan 8, 1957

By H. E. Howe, A. A. Smith

E. Schumacher.*—Mr. Smith has shown us once again how variable lead alloys can be. I have studied lead alloys for a good many years and know from experience that their behavior cannot be predicted by analogy with other alloys. I have always been interested in observing how the creep resistance of lead may be improved by the addition of as little as 0.03 per cent Ca. Without the presence of calcium the grains of extruded lead pipe are fairly equiaxed and motion can take place easily at the boundaries. The calcium addition of 0.03 per cent causes the grain boundaries to become very irregular and jagged, and results in creep resistance many times greater than that of pure lead. Mr. Smith showed that in the one per cent antimony-lead alloy creep is occasionally excessive even where low stresses are involved. We have observed this phenomenon many

Jan 1, 1945

By E. M. Norris

During the winter and spring of 1917, an unprecedented number of underground fires occurred in the Butte district. With one exception, these fires were caused by the failure of electrical equipment, and called attention to the increased fire hazard in underground mining operations occasioned by the extensive use of electricity. Five local conditions that contributed toward a heavy fire risk were: (1) The heavy continuous timbering necessary for mine supports; (2) the strong ventilating pressures in the shafts and main airways; (3) the subsidence and faulting movements in the country rock, which ruptured cables and displaced trolley and lighting wires; (4) the strongly acid mine waters, which quickly developed any weak points in the electrical insulation; (5) oxidation in old stopes containing large amounts of timber. In the summer of 1917, a comprehensive plan of fire prevention was begun by the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., which involved a thorough and intensive development of the preventive measures then in use. These were as follows: Fireproofing, remodeling and strengthening electrical insulations, extension of underground water system, control of ' ventilation, maintaining efficiency of fire-fighting crews, and reorganization of fire patrol. In considering the problems of fireproofing, it was immediately apparent that some method of applying a durable coat of fireproof material to the mine timbers was needed. The first experiments were made with a plaster composed of one part cement, one-half part fireclay, and three parts sand. This was applied by hand to a thickness of 1 in. (2.5 cm.) over a reenforcement of herringbone metal lath. It made a very satisfactory covering for fan stations, but was too soft and friable for traveling ways, where it was subject to abrasion. The cement gun was tried next with a three to one mixture of sand and cement. A 1/2-in. coating of gunite applied over poultry netting or metal-lath reenforcement proved

Jan 1, 1923

By E. M. Norris

During the winter and spring of 1917, an unprecedented number of underground fires occurred in the Butte district. With one exception, these fires were caused by the failure of electrical equipment, and called attention to the increased fire hazard in underground mining operations occasioned by the extensive use of electricity. Five local conditions that contributed toward a heavy fire risk were: (1) The heavy continuous timbering necessary for mine supports; (2) the strong ventilating pressures in the shafts and main airways; (3) the subsidence and faulting movements in the country rock, which ruptured cables and displaced trolley and lighting wires; (4) the strongly acid mine waters, which quickly developed any weak points in the electrical insulation; (5) oxidation in old stopes containing large amounts of timber. In the summer of 1917, a comprehensive plan of fire prevention was begun by the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., which involved a thorough and intensive development of the preventive measures then in use. These were as follows: Fireproofing, remodeling and strengthening electrical insulations, extension of underground water system, control of ' ventilation, maintaining efficiency of fire-fighting crews, and reorganization of fire patrol. In considering the problems of fireproofing, it was immediately apparent that some method of applying a durable coat of fireproof material to the mine timbers was needed. The first experiments were made with a plaster composed of one part cement, one-half part fireclay, and three parts sand. This was applied by hand to a thickness of 1 in. (2.5 cm.) over a reenforcement of herringbone metal lath. It made a very satisfactory covering for fan stations, but was too soft and friable for traveling ways, where it was subject to abrasion. The cement gun was tried next with a three to one mixture of sand and cement. A 1/2-in. coating of gunite applied over poultry netting or metal-lath reenforcement proved

Jan 1, 1923

By Leo H. Duriez, James V. Neuman

THE Bayard property of the united States Smelting Refining and Mining Company is in south central Grant County in southwestern New Mexico about fifteen miles east of Silver City and one mile west of Santa Rita. The present holdings cover a belt roughly one mile wide by ten miles long, lying west of, and adjacent to, the holdings of the American Smelting and Refining Co., Kennecott Copper Corp., Empire Zinc Co., and Peru Mining Co. The area extends from the village of Bayard on the south to a point three miles northeast of Fierro. The property is a part of the well-known Central mining district which has been New Mexico's leading copper-zinc producer for many years. The property is segregated into three sections, the Bullfrog, Hanover Bessemer, and the Shingle Canyon sections. Of these, the Bullfrog section covers the area between the towns of Bayard and Hanover and includes the Bullfrog No. 1, Bullfrog No. 2, Slate, Hobo,

Jan 1, 1948

By R. N. Orava

TO the author's knowledge, only one satisfactory high-resolution technique for etch-pitting dislocations in Cu-Zn alloys has been published.' In that account, pits in 70/30 brass single crystals were produced by etching electrolytic ally in a 30 pct orthophosphoric acid bath. Thereafter, observations were made from surface replicas by electron microscopy. The method of pitting and observation permitted the high resolution necessary for the distinction of individual dislocations in arrays of pile-ups. However, no comment was offered concerning the possibility of obtaining pits which are amenable to optical resolution. Moreover, for adequate results, the electrolytic pitting process is invariably preceded by a polishing stage which could obscure the surface features of interest. Consequently, it would be desirable to be able to delineate, by solely chemical means, dislocations which could be detected by both optical and electron metallo-graphic techniques. This was achieved by the simple expedient of modifying two etchants reported by young2 to reveal dislocations on the (100) planes of pure copper. Single crystals of 70/30 a brass, described previously,3 were sectioned to provide a surface parallel to a set of {100) planes, mechanically polished, and subsequently electropolished at 2.4 v in a solution comprised of 2 parts H3PO4, 4 parts ethanol, and 3 parts water. The inclusion of ethanol tended to inhibit nonuniform surface attack. Etch-pitting was effected by a 2 to 3 sec immersion in a 70 pct aqueous solution of HNO3. The samples were then washed in a fast-flowing stream of water, and rinsed further in distilled water, and ethanol, before drying. It is important to note that this reagent should be either used immediately after mixing, or, if allowed to cool, reheated to about 35°C prior to use. No pitting was obtained at room temperature. Typical results are shown in Fig. 1 where (a) is an optical view of the pitted surface and (b) is an electron micrograph of a silicon monoxide replica shadowed with tungsten oxide. The former is characteristic of a somewhat longer etching time (-6 to 8 sec) which varied with bath temperature. Similar pits accrued from a 1/10 aqueous dilution of another of Young's solutions2—2 M FeC1,6H20 and 7.8 M HBr.

Jan 1, 1968

By N. A. Ziegler

A CERTAIN amount of interest has been indicated recently in the resistance to oxidation at high temperatures of iron-aluminum alloys (rich in iron). Hautman1 published a paper in which some interesting results are given. According to his paper, only alloys containing at least 8 per cent aluminum indicate a marked improvement in their resistance to oxidation. At about this aluminum content, however, alloys become brittle, which considerably reduces their commercial value. About two years ago the author performed a series of experiments, the results of which are presented here. A series of iron-aluminum-carbon alloys was prepared by melting electrolytic iron, aluminum and high-carbon iron alloy in an induction vacuum furnace.2 The list of these alloys is given in Table 1. Each alloy was forged in the ordinary way to

Jan 1, 1932

By C. R. St. John, R. W. Lindsay, Charles R. Austin

MANY of the factors influencing the creep behavior of ferrous alloys have been investigated and reported upon in the literature, including such variables as grain size, steelmaking practice, nature and stability of the microstructure, and the effect of alloying elements in steels. However, with respect to the latter, the microstructures involved are usually heterogeneous and as a result the effect of the addition is related to its effects on the various phases present in the microstructure. In the instances where this structure consists of ferrite and carbide, the behavior of the alloy addition will be related to its action in strengthening ferrite and in opposing temperature softening of ferrite as well as coalescence of carbide. The present paper is the third in a series comprising a comprehensive review of investigations on the properties of iron binary alloys. 1.2 Its purpose is to describe the results of isolating one microstructural phase, namely ferrite, and studying its creep characteristics in both the unalloyed and alloyed conditions. This should aid in establishing to a large degree the importance of ferrite in the creep behavior of steels consisting of the previously mentioned ferrite-carbide aggregate. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK In view of the fact that the present investigation deals only with the effects of silicon, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, and cobalt, and to a certain extent with the effects of carbon, the review of previous literature will be confined to these elements. Practically no references were encountered dealing with the influence of these elements on the creep characteristics of the isolated phase. However, various contributions have dealt with the creep behavior of low-carbon steels alloyed with the elements under consideration. A particularly concise review in this respect is given by Bullens (Battelle)3 and much of this material has been drawn upon. The definite improvement in creep resistance and high-temperature strength conferred by molybdenum is well known. Published suggestions by the A.S.M.E.4 permit of an increase of some 2000 to 5000 lb. per sq. in. in permissible design loads over a temperature range from 650° to 1000°F. as a consequence of additions of 0.40 to o.60 per cent of this element in carbon steels of the order of o.25 to o.35 per cent carbon content. Babcock and Wilcox Tube Co.5 has published data showing the pronounced increase in stress necessary to cause one per cent creep per 10,000 hr. when additions of 0.5 or 1 per cent molybdenum are made to a plain carbon steel. These data apply to temperatures over a range from 800° to 1000°F.

Jan 1, 1945

By H. H. Evinger, M. Muskat

A methoD of calculating productivity factors for oil, gas, and water systems in the steady state is presented as an illustration of the quantitative application of the fundamental data on the flow properties of heterogeneous fluid systems. While the numerical results of the calculations cannot be applied directly to field conditions, because they are based on permea-bility data for unconsolidated sands and involve specific assumptions regarding the nature of the reservoir fluids, the methods of analysis and interpretation should havc significance in considering certain specific field situations when the necessary field and laboratory data become available. Moreover, it is felt that even under the idealized conditions to which the numerical calculations refer they should serve to give at least the orders of magnitude of the effects of gas-oil ratio and connate water on observed productivity factors. Within the indicated limitations, the computations imply that the foregoing factors can explain only a part of the apparent discrepancy between the homogeneous fluid productivity factors and those obtained recently in field measurements on the West Coast. IntroductioN Sufficient laboratory research has been carried out in the last several years on the fundamental features of the flow of heterogeneous fluids through porous media to call for consideration of what can be done with this type of information. It has, of course, already led to a, much clearer general understanding of the mechanics of oil production. However, examples of the quantitative application of the results of such laboratory studies are few in the literature. part of the explanation for this fact lies undoubtedly in the lack of sufficient laboratory data relating to practical fluids and sand systems such as would occur ill actual oil reservoirs. However, unless it can be shown that if such data were obtained quantitative applications could be made, serious doubt may be cast upon the desirability of carrying on further extensive experimental research work on fluid flow. The purpose of this paper is to present one approach to the problem of quantitative application of laboratory data to practical field problems. Because the published results on the basic experiments with three-phase fluid systems in porous media are limited entirely to uncon-solidated sands, the numerical applications made here will not pertain directly to any actual field situation. However, they should serve to illustrate what could be done with fundamental laboratory data if they were extended to cover the field of consolidated sands. From this point of view, it is hoped it will serve to encourage further laboratory research on this problem. The particular application to be treated here relates to the calculation of the productivity factors for oil-gas-water systems in the steady state. This specific problem seems especially appropriate for discussion in view of the recent publication by Johnston1 of the results of produc-

Jan 1, 1942

By M. Muskat, H. H. Evinger

A methoD of calculating productivity factors for oil, gas, and water systems in the steady state is presented as an illustration of the quantitative application of the fundamental data on the flow properties of heterogeneous fluid systems. While the numerical results of the calculations cannot be applied directly to field conditions, because they are based on permea-bility data for unconsolidated sands and involve specific assumptions regarding the nature of the reservoir fluids, the methods of analysis and interpretation should havc significance in considering certain specific field situations when the necessary field and laboratory data become available. Moreover, it is felt that even under the idealized conditions to which the numerical calculations refer they should serve to give at least the orders of magnitude of the effects of gas-oil ratio and connate water on observed productivity factors. Within the indicated limitations, the computations imply that the foregoing factors can explain only a part of the apparent discrepancy between the homogeneous fluid productivity factors and those obtained recently in field measurements on the West Coast. IntroductioN Sufficient laboratory research has been carried out in the last several years on the fundamental features of the flow of heterogeneous fluids through porous media to call for consideration of what can be done with this type of information. It has, of course, already led to a, much clearer general understanding of the mechanics of oil production. However, examples of the quantitative application of the results of such laboratory studies are few in the literature. part of the explanation for this fact lies undoubtedly in the lack of sufficient laboratory data relating to practical fluids and sand systems such as would occur ill actual oil reservoirs. However, unless it can be shown that if such data were obtained quantitative applications could be made, serious doubt may be cast upon the desirability of carrying on further extensive experimental research work on fluid flow. The purpose of this paper is to present one approach to the problem of quantitative application of laboratory data to practical field problems. Because the published results on the basic experiments with three-phase fluid systems in porous media are limited entirely to uncon-solidated sands, the numerical applications made here will not pertain directly to any actual field situation. However, they should serve to illustrate what could be done with fundamental laboratory data if they were extended to cover the field of consolidated sands. From this point of view, it is hoped it will serve to encourage further laboratory research on this problem. The particular application to be treated here relates to the calculation of the productivity factors for oil-gas-water systems in the steady state. This specific problem seems especially appropriate for discussion in view of the recent publication by Johnston1 of the results of produc-

Jan 1, 1942

Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn W. H Emmons, Director A list of publications will be sent upon application Orders for publications should be addressed to The University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota The Geological Survey of Minnesota has a record of long and useful service Some of the papers published have been outstanding in their field A series of 24 Annual Reports, covering the years 1872 to 1895-98, inclusive, was issued, of which 16 are still available at a price. More important however, are the six volumes of Final Reports, in which is collected the material presented in the earlier Annual Reports. All the strictly geological papers are found in four of the volumes of the Final Reports. vol 1 (1872-1882), principally geology by counties, 2 (1882-1885), same as 1, 4 (1896-1898), same as 1, 5 (1898-1900), Structural and petrographic geology Prices for each volume, leather $3, cloth $2 50, excluding postage, unless other directions accompany the order, volumes of the Final Reports will be sent express collect. A series of Bulletins has been issued, of which a few are out of print. Considering only those available, and of greatest interest, they are: Bulletin 5, Natural gas in Minnesota, by N H Winchell (1889), 50 cents, 6, Iron ores in Minnesota, their geology, discovery, development, qualities and origin, by N H Winchell and H V.

Jan 1, 1933

By M. J. Marcinkowski, R. M. Fisher

The flow stress-grain size relationship has been determined at room temperature in both a disordered and a fully ordered FeCo for plastic strains up to 30 pct. The results are in agreement with a Hall-Petch relation of the type given by Of =a,+kd-1/2 where of is the flour stress and a, increases mono-tonically with increasing strain to a maximum value which is much higher for the ordered than for the disordered alloy. The slope, k, is found to increase FOLLOWING the original work of Halll and petch relating the effect of grain size to the lower yield stress of iron and steel, it has been generally found that the yield stress oy.s. of polycrystalline metals with strain to a maximum and then decrease for both ordered and disordered alloys. However, k for the ordered alloy is in general higher than that for the disordered alloy and the critical strain for k max somewhat larger. All of these observations can be satisfactorily accounted for quantitatively and in some cases semiquantitatively by using a slip band-grain boundary intersection model, and by taking note of the fact that, in general, moss slip, while quite common in the disordered alloy, is extremely difficult in the ordered alloy. obeys a relation of the form oy.s.=a0+kd-1/2 [1] where a, and k are constants and d is the mean grain diameter. For convenience, and in accord with prevailing custom, Eq. [I] will be referred to simply as the Petch relation. Tjerkstra3 and Armstrong, Codd, Douthwaite, and petch4 showed that the flow stress af of iron or steel measured at strains of up to at least 20 pct also obeyed a relationship of the type given by Eq. (11. The latter investigators have also shown that Eq. [I] applies to fcc and hcp metals and alloys.

Jan 1, 1965

By Yap Chu-Phay

Although chronologically the Sb-Bi system was the first one studied by the writer, the theoretical basis of the equations used in this paper is fully discussed in the writer's paper on the iron-carbon system,' because he believed that many would be more interested in the iron-carbon alloys. He suggests, therefore, that the reader consult that paper to familiarize himself with the theoretical aspect of the thermodynamic treatment outlined herein. This paper is divided into two parts: Part 'I deals with the Sb-Bi system and Part II deals with the lead-rich side of the Sb-Pb system. Although the former system has not much practical interest now, it has great theoretical interest in that it is the one system that for a long time was thought to have (and under specific conditions still has) an anomalous solidus, which no amount of physical investigation could adequately account for. The latter system, of course, is particularly interesting in the lead-rich end. It will be shown that the thermodynamic method is capable of predicting reliably the equilibrium position of the solidus, and thus acts as a check on the experimentally derived solidus. PART I.—THE ANTIMONY-BISMUTII SYSTEM In connection with his studies in thermoelectric phenomena,-the writer was naturally interested in the system Sb-Bi. In consulting the International Critical Tables2 he found the constitutional diagram shown in Fig. 1 (not including Ôtani's solidus), essentially after Cook,³ who investigated the system carefully by thermal analysis. Note the isothermal crystallization of alloys varying in composition from about 48 per cent, (by weight) to pure Bi. This is anomalous, because, according to the phase rule, in a binary system when only two phases coexist, there is univariant equilibrium; that is, the composition changes with the tempera-

Jan 1, 1931

The Institute conducts jointly with the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers and American Institute of Electrical Engineers, certain activities as listed below, and is joint owner with them of certain properties. United Engineering Trustees, lnc. When Mr. Carnegie made his gift which made possible a home for the engineering societies, a separate corporation was organized to act as a holding company and to manage the common property. This was long known as the United Engineering Society, but the name has now been changed to one which more nearly reflects the real function of the corporation. It holds title to the Engineering Societies Building and to various funds placed in its charge and is managed by a Board of Trustees, of which three are chosen by each of the four societies, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Institute of Electrical Engineers and American Society of Civil Engineers, which have equal and undivided interests in. the property. The land and building cost two million dollars. During the year 1934, the Constitution and Bylaws

Jan 1, 1938

By Kurt Stock

The grades of spelter demanded by the consuming industries were not definitely established until the American Society for Testing Materials undertook to fix specifications, based on the varying percentages of the common impurities (lead, iron, and cadmium) as follows: Total, Not Leap, Iron, Cadmium, Over. Per Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Cent. A. High grade.................. 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.10 B. Intermediate................ 0.20 0.03 0.50 0.50 C. Brass special................ 0.75 0.04 0.75 1.20 D. Prime western............... 1.50 0.08 The question which grade was the best for certain purposes and why was left unanswered. The conservatism of the zinc-smelting industry and the unwillingness of the spelter-consuming industries to engage in research work prevented the full benefits being obtained that such standardization promised. The custom smelters, producing spelter in pigs or plates, found it impossible to adhere closely to the established limits on account of the variety of ores treated; and the smelters with long-established and known brands, or those manufacturing their metal into marketable products, like sheet zinc, did not have to abide by the newly established grades based on chemical percentages. Smelters engaged in the smelting of custom ores had occasional complaints about the quality of their metal, as some of the consumers, especially brassmakers and some galvanizers, used the rigid standards of the A. S. T. M. as a basis for obtaining redress from zinc smelters whenever some of their work was faulty. Indirectly, much good resulted from such complaints; for while the brassmakers and galvanizers, on the whole, did not know what was wrong, the metallurgists in charge of zinc smelters were induced to abandon their conservatism and study the influence of impurities in spelter from the point of view of the consumer. For some of us, spelter gradually ceased to be considered merely spelter; it

Jan 1, 1925

By P. H. Cardwell

The effect of various plastics upon the permeability of a sand and the mechanism of their ensuring permeability within the consolidated sand body is discussed. Data are presented on various properties of the plastic materials used in sand consolidation and the effect of temperature and usable temperature ranges are considered. The recovery of petroleum from uncon-solidated sands presents serious production problems, owing to sloughing of the formation. The solution of some of these problems usually has been by mechanical methods.' The ideal way of controlling the sloughing tendencies of these un consolidated formations, however, is to prevent the movement of the individual sand grains by the use of a bonding medium. A step in the desired direction was taken by Irons and Stcesser2 when they taught the use of liquid plastics to produce a consolidating deposit that prevents sloughing. More recently, Wrightsman and Buckley3 proposed a modification of this process. In this use of the liquid plastic, the sand grains become coated and the ensuing hardening of the plastic by polymerization or condensation cements together the sand Particles. Liquid plastics that have been suggested for this Purpose are of the following types: phenolformaldehyde, alkyd resins, vinyl type resins, polystyrene and the acrylic esters. When the flow of fluids through a sand must not be materially reduced, it is essential only to cement together the sand grains with liquid plastic and leave a portion of the interstitial space for fluid flow. TO be assured of obtaining fluid flow through the sand interstices after injection of plastic, it has been necessary in the past to remove the excess plastic from the interstices between the particles before it sets. Wrightsman and Buckley suggest two methods for the removal of the excess plastic from the interstices of the sand: (I) to flush the excess plastic back into the formation, away from the well bore, by use of oil or water; (2) to produce the well before the plastic has set, thereby moving the excess plastic into the well bore. Under certain well conditions it is very difficult to remove the excess plastic from all parts of the formation by either of these methods and leave the formation consolidated with no sections completely sealed. The method* described herein of retaining permeability within a sand body is to use a liquid plastic that upon setting ensures permeability within the consolidated sand body. This cements the sand grains but obviates the need for removing plastic from the interstices of the sand. One of the ways of accomplishing this is to use a liquid plastic that occupies a considerably greater volume than the solidified resin it yields on further polymerization or condensation in situ. In order to be satisfactory, the volume of the plastic while liquid should be at least one and one half times the volume of the solid formed. Preferably,

Jan 1, 1947

By P. H. Cardwell

The effect of various plastics upon the permeability of a sand and the mechanism of their ensuring permeability within the consolidated sand body is discussed. Data are presented on various properties of the plastic materials used in sand consolidation and the effect of temperature and usable temperature ranges are considered. The recovery of petroleum from uncon-solidated sands presents serious production problems, owing to sloughing of the formation. The solution of some of these problems usually has been by mechanical methods.' The ideal way of controlling the sloughing tendencies of these un consolidated formations, however, is to prevent the movement of the individual sand grains by the use of a bonding medium. A step in the desired direction was taken by Irons and Stcesser2 when they taught the use of liquid plastics to produce a consolidating deposit that prevents sloughing. More recently, Wrightsman and Buckley3 proposed a modification of this process. In this use of the liquid plastic, the sand grains become coated and the ensuing hardening of the plastic by polymerization or condensation cements together the sand Particles. Liquid plastics that have been suggested for this Purpose are of the following types: phenolformaldehyde, alkyd resins, vinyl type resins, polystyrene and the acrylic esters. When the flow of fluids through a sand must not be materially reduced, it is essential only to cement together the sand grains with liquid plastic and leave a portion of the interstitial space for fluid flow. TO be assured of obtaining fluid flow through the sand interstices after injection of plastic, it has been necessary in the past to remove the excess plastic from the interstices between the particles before it sets. Wrightsman and Buckley suggest two methods for the removal of the excess plastic from the interstices of the sand: (I) to flush the excess plastic back into the formation, away from the well bore, by use of oil or water; (2) to produce the well before the plastic has set, thereby moving the excess plastic into the well bore. Under certain well conditions it is very difficult to remove the excess plastic from all parts of the formation by either of these methods and leave the formation consolidated with no sections completely sealed. The method* described herein of retaining permeability within a sand body is to use a liquid plastic that upon setting ensures permeability within the consolidated sand body. This cements the sand grains but obviates the need for removing plastic from the interstices of the sand. One of the ways of accomplishing this is to use a liquid plastic that occupies a considerably greater volume than the solidified resin it yields on further polymerization or condensation in situ. In order to be satisfactory, the volume of the plastic while liquid should be at least one and one half times the volume of the solid formed. Preferably,

Jan 1, 1947

By Charles H. Fulton

THE Engineering Education group began its sessions Tuesday morning, Feb. 16, as a Committee and wound up the day as the Institute's fifth " Division." C.II. Fulton presided. The first paper for discussion was entitled "Teaching Management in Engineering Schools,"' by Eugene McAuliffe, president of the Union Pacific Coal Co., space for which may be found later in these pages. In it, Mr. McAuliffe argued that an engineering student should be taught the knowledge of men, much as a medical school teaches surgery. He then went on to indicate, out of the wealth of his administrative experience, the problems an executive needs to be equipped to handle, and said that every student engineer should look on himself as a potential manager.

Jan 1, 1932

By E. P. Klier

The work of Klier and Lyman1 on the bainite reaction has led to the full description of this reaction for medium-carbon low-alloy steels. Certain experimental data reported by Klier and Lyman appear, however, to be improbable of obtaining in very high-carbon steels. The study herein reported consists of an analysis of the transformation characteristics of a 3 per cent chromium, I per cent carbon steel by means of X-ray and metallographic methods. From the results obtained it is concluded that the bainite reaction in this steel is more complicated than that reported by Klier and Lyman for the low-carbon low-alloy steels. Henever, the mechanism of bainite formation in this steel appears to be essentially the same as proposed for the low-carbon low-alloy steels with the modification that the first volumes to transform are carbon-rich rather than carbon-poor. Experimental Procedure The analysis of the steel studied was: Cr, 2.89; C, 1.02; Mn, 0.33; Si, o.35; S, 0.012; P, 0.020. The stock was received from the Carpenter Steel Co. in rolled bars. Specimen Preparation Specimens were austenitized at 1200°C. (2192°F.) for 25 min. in purified nitrogen. The resultant A.S.T.M. austenite grain size was 0-1. Isothermal transformation was allowed by quenching the specimens into liquid metal baths controlled to 5°C. at 540°C. (1004°F.) and above, and to 2°C. at 490°C. (914°f.) and below. Following the desired degree of transformation all specimens were water quenched. Metallographic Examination Specimens 1/4 in. round by 1/4 in. were used for nietallographic examination. Etch-ants used were Vilella's reagent (I gram picric acid, 10 ml. hydrochloric acid to make 100 ml. ethyl alcohol solution) and alkalinc sodium picratc (electrolytic). Vilella's reagent was effective in revealing all microconstitucnts, while the alkaline sodium picrate developed the carbon-rich structures or carbides only. X-ray Examination Two X-ray techniques were used—the Debye-Scherrer method and a back-reflection method. 'The small specimens necessary for the Debye-Scherrer method were austenitized and then allowed to transform, or were cut from the larger metallographic specimens. The metallographic specimens were used for the back-reflection X-ray analysis. When it was desirable to determine the structure of the carbide present, sliver specimens were electrolytically etched to develop a carbide coating, then were exposed in the cameras. This technique was frequently necessary to allow positive identification of the carbide.

Jan 1, 1945

By R. I. Jaffee, J. W. Roberts, D. N. Williams

DISPERSION hardening as an alloying process has aroused increasing interest in the past few years. This alloying procedure, in which an insoluble phase is dispersed randomly through a metal or alloy, is believed to be especially suited for the attainment of creep strength at elevated temperatures since the dispersed phase is metallurgically stable. Another advantage is that the physical properties of the matrix phase, such as electrical conductivity, remain relatively unaffected by alloying. These two characteristics resulted in interest in the applicability of dispersion hardening to copper and copper alloys. A study of copper alloys prepared by powder metallurgy methods has shown some strengthening from oxide dispersions.' However, powder metallurgy processing would not be economical for large scale production of dispersion hardened copper-base alloys. Therefore, the research described in this article was initiated to examine methods of forming dispersion alloys which would not require powder metallurgy processing. If powder metallurgy processing is to be avoided, a method must be found by which the dispersion material can be introduced into and dispersed through the melt before casting. When the dispersed phase is an oxide or similar nonmetallic, it is extremely difficult to form a satisfactory liquid: solid dispersion since successful mixing requires that the melt wet the dispersed phase. It is almost impossible to force a nonwetted particle beneath the melt surface. This difficulty can be avoided, however, if the oxide particles are produced in molten copper by reaction within the melt. The problem would then reduce to maintaining randomness until solidification. Four procedures were considered for producing an oxide particle within molten copper by reaction. In all cases, the intent was to react oxygen (0) with a reactive metal (X) to form an oxide (XO) within the copper melt. These reactions were as follows: 1) (Cu-X), + (O)g (Cu)1 + (XO)S [1] 2) (Cu-X)1 + (Cu2O)s (Cu)x + (XO)S [2] 3) (Cu-OK)1 + (Cu-X)1 (Cu)1+(XO)9 [3] 4) (Cu-OK)1 +(X)s (Cu)1 +(XO)s [4] The reactions were carried out in an 8-lb melt of 99.98 pct Cu maintained in the vicinity of 2200oF by induction heating. Where possible the amount of the reactants was controlled to give 1 to 5 vol pct oxide. Mechanical stirring during the reaction period was used to minimize agglomeration of the reaction product. The presence of a reaction product was determined metallographically by study of an ingot cast from the melt at the end of the reaction period. Reaction [I] was studied by dissolving aluminum in the melt followed by forcing oxygen through the melt. The melts became quite sluggish during the reaction period suggesting that A12O3 was formed. However, the reaction product rose out of the melt rapidly, possibly due to the flushing action of the oxygen stream, and little dispersed phase was formed. Reaction [2] was examined by dissolving aluminum, silicon, or nickel i; the melt and then adding Cu20 (melting point 2250F). This procedure was unsuccessful. Although Cu2O was easily stirred into cop-

Jan 1, 1961