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By W. R. Hamilton

The knowledge of the existence of petroleum in Southern California dates back to the days of the missions. The presence of asphaltum and semisolid bitumen was reported at Santa Barbara in 1792, but no serious attempt was made to develop oil until Professor Silliman's optimistic report in 1865 started California's first oil boom. Wells were drilled in many counties of the State, but the equipment was unsuitable and the drilling difficult and no production was obtained except in Ventura County. Even there the production was of little importance commercially, and not until the early '80s did it become sufficient to again attract attention. In 1888 the production for the State had reached a total of about 700,000 bbl. per year, practically all light oil produced in Ventura County, Pico Canyon, Los Angeles County and in the Puente Hills. The production of petroleum attained the dignity of an industry in 1895 when the Los Angeles City and Coalinga fields were discovered. The subsequent development has been remarkable, and in 20 years the production has increased from 1,000,000 to 100,000,000 bb1. per year. The refining industry has kept pace with the production of oil. The Pacific Coast Oil Co., the predecessor of the Standard Oil Co. of California, was the virtual pioneer refining company of the State, having built a refinery at Alameda about 1880. When purchased by the Standard, about 1902, it was dismantled and the refinery at Point Richmond was built. The Richmond refinery is now one of the largest in the world, having a capacity in excess of 60,000 bbl. per day. A small refinery was built by the Union Oil Co. at Santa Paula in the early days of the industry and later many asphalt refineries were in operation in Southern California. The Pacific Coast Oil Co. was then, as has been its successor, the Standard Oil Co. of California, the principal refiner and marketer of light products, the most valuable of which was kerosene. Before the opening of the twentieth century, gasoline of excellent quality was produced, though it was always a drug on the market and was produced for the simple reason that its presence rendered the flash and fire tests of the kerosene too low. The user of kerosene at the present

Jan 1, 1917

By John A. Mathews

It is no longer necessary to explain to an audience like this that there are stainless or non-corrosive steels. It is still necessary to repeat, and to keep on repeating, that no one of them is stainless or non-corrosive under any and all conditions. We do not make railroad axles, springs and rails from the same kinds of steel; nor are shafts, steering-arms, gears and cap-screws made from the same type analysis. By analogy with other fields of endeavor, therefore, it is logical to expect that all the myriad conditions of corrosion due to inorganic and organic acids and salts and their mixtures in all degrees of concentration and at a wide variety of temperatures and pressures will require different materials to withstand them. Possibly stainless steel when first introduced a decade ago was expected to do too much, or suffered from overenthusiasm and lack of positive knowledge and experience on the part of its producers. Its name may have been a bit misleading too, for remarkable as this product is, it has its limitations. There are now so many different ferrous products available and calling for recognition, that we may be justified in an attempt at classification. The first division is very simple. 1. Non-corrosive steels that harden by quenching. 2. Non-corrosive steels which do not harden by quenching. We might make the classification still simpler by saying (1) those that harden by quenching, and (2) those that soften by quenching. Of course there is a border line or fringe of compositions which may possess some of both qualities under limited conditions of treatment. I have seen a steel so perfectly balanced on this border line that in its natural condition, as rolled, the outside of a 1-in. bar was soft and the inside hard, and there was quite a sharp line of demarcation in between. The hardness at the center was more than twice as great as at the surface, as measured by the Rockwell test. This border line of products does not include, however, the commercial products now available to solve the problems of industry. Let us examine the products of these two classes: Hardenable Non-cokkosive Steels This group, practically speaking, includes only the products known as "stainless iron and stainless steel." These names have a special sig-

Jan 1, 1927

By T. C. Clarke

The history of iron construction in this country well illustrates the three phases of thought described by Auguste Comte, the French philosopher. The first is the era of faith, when belief in the safety of structures rests on the authority of the designer. The second is the era of criticism, when plans of structures are analyzed with much mathematical skill, but the data upon which the chain of reasoning depends is assumed upon insufficient experiment. The third, upon which we are now entering, is a scientific era, which demands experimental proof. It also demands that this proof shall be derived from experiments made on full-sized specimens, such as are in actual use, and not upon toy models. Until the construction of the United States testing-machine, now at Watertown Arsenal, it was impossible to make such experiments with accuracy. We now have a machine in which we can test full-sized specimens of every part of a bridge or other structure that we want to use, and under the same conditions in which it is actually used. The next thing is to get money to make these experiments available. No private individuals can afford to do it, and even if they could, they might wish to keep the results to themselves. So that the next point is that we want money, and that, I believe, everybodly thinks we should ask Congress for. We want also, as has been said, some one who shall make a business of testing, and who has plenty of time. Persons who are employed in private business are too much in a hurry; they want to do a thing and get done with it, and then do something else; but government officers are entirely free from this feeling; time to them is of no account, and in experimenting that is the very element that is of value; it does not do to be hurried; the great thing is to get it right and to test your results, and go over it, again and again. And the experimenter who operates the machine must be some person educated up to the use of it. We then want a general advisory board who will indicate a plan of experiments, collect the results; and publish them. Some experiments were made the other day at the Watertown Arsenal upon full-sized

Jan 1, 1882

By K. Nassau

The Effect of tin and hydrogen on the C0 parameter of a titanium. specimens were capsule cooled in water to eliminate contamination by water. Deybe-Scherrer photograms were obtained in a 114.6 mm camera with CuKa radiation. The parameters shown in Table I and Fig. 1 were calculated from the 213 (8569°) and 302 (8173.5°) reflections? no attempt being made to correct for systematic errors. The principal difference in method of preparation of specimens between this investigation and that of Worner was the use of pickling by the latter to produce X-ray diffraction samples. The possibility that hydrogen introduced by pickling was responsible for the lower a and c-parameters was investigated with the same 80 pct HNO3- 20 pct HF solutions used by Worner. The 6 and 10 at. pct specimens, the parameters of which had already been determined, were pickled and the c-parameters obtained are also shown in Fig. 1. The a-parameters, not shown, are also diminished. The quality of the lines obtained from the unetched and etched samples was unchanged, being quite sharp in both cases. It is quite possible that if corrections for systematic error carried out that the parameters obtained for the unetched samples would approach the data of Worner. In any event, the parameters of the etched samples would be still lower. The data obtained here is evidence that hydrogen in solution has contracted the c and a -parameters. Crystallographic Angles of Calcium Tung-state (Tetragonal, c/a = 2.169) K. Nassau In connection with the preparation and orientation of single crystals of calcium tungstate (Scheelite -CaWO4), the need arose for a stereographic projection for this tetragonal material. There appear to be no tetragonal projections with a c/a ratio above that of indium1 (c/a = 1.522) in the literature. In addition to its use for calcium tungstate, such a projection might find other more general applications and is accordingly presented below. The most recent X-ray diffraction work on CaWO4 is that of Swanson, Gilfrich, and Cook,2 where a summary of previous work is also found. Lattice parameters given are: a = 5.242A, c = 11.372A, and c/a = 2.169. The material is tetragonal with space group Table I, giving angles between crystallographic planes (HKL) and (hkl), was calculated from the formula3

Jan 1, 1961

By David Donoghue

THE. years 1901, 1910, and 1924 may be considered as the beginning of new eras in the history of the oil industry of the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana. Spindletop, in 1901, with its enormous cap-rock production revealed the possibilities of the salt domes. The lateral sand development at Vinton, in 1910, renewed interest in the then known domes which were non-producing, or were producing from the cap rock or from sands above the cap rock. The discovery of three domes, Nash, Orchard and Long Point, in the year 1924, by means of the torsion balance and the seismograph, is the beginning of intensive explorations of the Gulf coastal plain by geophysical methods. Domes other than those mentioned have no doubt been found during the last few months of the year but tests have not been drilled to confirm the evidence of the instruments. DISCOVERY OF DOMES BY GEOPHYSICAL METHODS The Rycade Oil Corpn. operated the first torsion balance on the Gulf Coast in October, 1922, and the Roxana Petroleum Corpn. brought in one of these instruments and began work in December, 1922. The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey made some gravity observations at Damon Mound, in 1923, with a pendulum apparatus. In March, 1924, the Marland Oil Co. placed the first seismograph on the Gulf Coast and the Gulf Production Co. followed with one in May. In June, 1924, the Gulf Production Co. began operations with a torsion balance. The Atlantic Oil Producing Co., The Texas Co., and others have experimented with several types of instruments involving various principles. During the next few years, a great advance in geophysical methods may be expected, especially if one of the newly discovered domes should be productive. The first dome discovered was the Nash, in Fort Bend County, Tex., about 6 mi. east of Damon Mound. A slight elevation and two shallow wells containing sulfurous waters made the locality somewhat interesting from the standpoint of surface indications, and the torsion-balance measurements indicated the presence of a dome. On July 20, 1924, the Rycade Oil Corpn. No. 1 Wisdom encountered lime at a depth of 634 ft. and anhydrite at 639 ft. The hole was abandoned on Sept. 8, 1924, at 769 ft. in anhydrite. A cavity in the anhydrite caused much delay and the final abandonment of this test.

Jan 3, 1925

By Carl Zapffe

Because no rock outcrops exist in the Cuyuna district, it is necessary first to make a magnetic survey with a dip needle, or possibly with a sun-dial compass, and determine the area or belt of magnetic variations and the maximum lines of magnetic attraction. A dip-needle survey is quicker to make, is sufficiently accurate, and will suffice. Regardless of how poorly defined the magnetic attractions may be, it is important that they be determined. Even if drilling has developed ore on an adjoining property, the survey should not be omitted. Iron-bearing formation is indicated by the magnetic attractions, but whether or not ore exists must be determined by drilling. The maximum line of magnetic attraction offers the best place to begin drilling. If no magnetic attraction exists, nearby developments are the only guide; and if these also are lacking, drilling is governed by guess. Test-pitting is not employed in exploratory work because the surface is too deep. Tunneling cannot be used because the topography is not suitable. Exploration shafts are a waste of time and expense, because from every standpoint drilling with churn and diamond drills is the most applicable method for exploratory work. Light drilling equipment only is needed. Rarely have heavier drills been required, for seldom do holes exceed 400 ft. in depth, and about 100 ft. of this is in glacial drift which is easy to penetrate. The deepest hole is 1023 ft. Because of the steep inclination of the strata and the narrowness of the orebodies, many angle holes have been drilled, mostly at 60' to 70" from the horizontal and against the dip of the formation. Angle holes are most advisable. If after initial drilling the beds are of shallow dip, vertical holes or holes of any angle can be used. The total cost of drilling a property is much greater if only vertical holes are used because more holes must be drilled to obtain the requisite information than when angle holes are used. Many tests for variation in angularity of a finished hole have seldom shown more than 2'; therefore, such tests may with safety be abandoned. Because the orebodies are generally about 100 ft. wide and cross a 40-acre tract at a slight angle, and as the dips are usually about 70"

Jan 1, 1925

By N. W. Perry

Some months ago a gentleman gave me a handful of minerals which he had collected in an arroyo, or dry stream-bed, that ran through the town of Ramos, State of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, as a sample of the class of ore that might be expected in the mines of that section. I was, however, familiar with those mines and their ores, and cast the pebbles aside as of no interest. I afterwards returned to Mexico and took charge of two groups of mines, one in the State of Zacatecas, and the other in the town of Ramos, State of San Luis Potosi. While I was thus engaged, it was a very frequent occurrence for parties to bring me specimens of rock, ores, etc., for my opinion on them; and one day a man brought me a half-dozen or more small pieces of a very black shiny mineral, desiring to know what it was. I did not recognize it, and desired him to give me the specimens for analysis, which he promised to do in a day or two. He never did give them to me, for he lost them ; but he said there were plenty more where these came from—at Ramos—and he could get them at any time for me. I thought no more of the matter until after my return to this country, when, one day, in looking over some of my old " trash," I came across the specimens at first referred to as having been cast aside so carelessly. I noticed two distinct minerals among the pebbles : one being erubescite or tetrahedrite, the predominating mineral of the mines of Ramos, and the other a hard black shining mineral, the same that I had wished to analyze in Mexico. On testing for hardness I was surprised that it scratched topaz with some degree of ease, thus placing it above 8 in the scale of hardness. Trying it with a corundum, I sometimes succeeded in scratching it, but at other times it would scratch the corundum, and at still other times neither would produce the slightest effect on the other. Crystallized topaz would be ground to a powder in attempting to scratch the black mineral, without abrading it in the slightest. It must, therefore, be placed at 9 in the scale of hardness. It is of the deepest opaque black, not unlike pitch-blende in ap-

Jan 1, 1884

By R. W. Smith, G. W. Delamore, J. A. Spittle

RECENT work by the authors1 has demonstrated that the crystals constituting the equiaxed zone in small ingots originate, on quenching, in the chilled liquid. Whether any partial remelting2 takes place of the den-drites nucleated in the chilled region was not examined. However, the claim3 that this normally occurs, leading to crystal multiplication, has been disputed.4 Thus, for an equiaxed zone to form in the central region of an otherwise columnar ingot, it is necessary to transport crystallites from the chill zone to this region. In view of the work of Uhlmann et al.,5 it was considered desirable to examine the transport process further. Experimental Technique and Results. In the earlier experiments by the authors.1 a stainless-steel crucible 17/8 in. diam, 41/2 in. high, ad containing an alloy of A1-4 wt pct Cu, was quenched from 660°C into a bath of Wood's metal maintained at 100°C. Under these conditions a central zone of equiaxed crystals was obtained. However, if a 2250-G unidirectional magnetic field was applied for 2 sec immediately following the instant of quenching, or subsequently, the equiaxed zone did not appear. Careful thermal analysis showed that the short application of the field had virtually no effect on the thermal conditions of the melt. It thus appeared that the crystallites which were ultimately to grow large enough to form the equiaxed zone existed in the liquid immediately ahead of the interface, occlusion being prevented by the convective fluid flow induced by freezing from the walls of the cylinder. When this relative movement was prevented by the Lorenz forces induced by the application of the magnetic field, the crystallites were caught up in the rapidly advancing dendrite solid-liquid interface. To test this assumption, a small ingot of super-purity aluminum was partially melted and poured into a heated stainless-steel mold which was then immediately quenched into molten Wood's alloy. The resulting structure is shown in Fig. 1, and consists of columnar grains with a central fine-grained zone. Thus the unmelted solid present at the beginning of solidification had been transported ahead of the columnar interface. Discussion. There appears to be little or no information available on the interaction of suspended particles with a metallic solid/liquid interface. However, some information is available for transparent organic sys-

Jan 1, 1969

By William Kent

ABOUT a year ago, the writer had occasion to assist Mr. John L. Gill, Jr., of the Pittsburgh. Car-wheel Works, in making a trial of his new testing machine. A piece of Bessemer steel, of about .34 carbon, was used as a test-piece, turned to a sectional area of one square inch for a length of five inches between shoulders, and pro¬vided with large round heads, which were fitted to what is called the " Wade grip." Measurements of elongation, accurate to , 1/10000 of an inch, were made by a special apparatus containing two micrometer screws, with electric contact attachment. The machine was operated by hand-power. Readings of elongation were taken at each increment of 2000 pounds stress per square inch, up to 44,000 pounds, the elongation corresponding to the latter figure being .0088 inch. The elongations up to this point remained almost exactly proportional to the stresses, the strain diagram, as shown on the Plate, from the origin to the point A, being a straight line (the deviation of no observation from the straight line being greater than .0002 inch). There being no indication of an approach to the elastic limit, the attendant at the hand-wheel and scale-beam was told to proceed as usual and move the poise forward 2000 pounds, or to 46,000, and turn the wheel until the beam was balanced. Noticing that the beam did not rise in the usual time, and that the elongation was increasing rapidly, the writer called to the attendant to stop turning the hand-wheel and to push the poise backwards until the scale-beam balanced. Instead of balancing at between 44,000 and 46,000 pounds, as was expected, it balanced at 40,000 pounds, and the elongation had increased to .0343 inch (or more than four times that recorded at 44,000 pounds), as plotted at the point B, the dotted line between A and B showing the supposed course of the strain diagram between these two points. Immediately upon recording the elongation the writer said to Mr. Gill, who was standing alongside: "This phenomena is without a parallel in my experience, and I know of but one way to account for it. The piece must actually be broken in its interior, through a flaw or weak portion of the metal. The test-piece is now equivalent to a tube, with

Jan 1, 1880

By William P. Mason

FoR reasons unnecessary to enter into here, I was called upon to contradict the statement that " closed metallic vessels, partly filled with water and heated, do not become shattered by violent explosion, but simply rupture by over-pressure;" and the following experimental results were obtained in support of my position : A piece of drawn brass tubing (telescope-tubing) 1 1/2 inches in diameter and 15 inches long was closed at both ends by screwing on heavy caps of bronze. Before closing the second end the vessel was half filled with river water, the cap was then screwed on, and the closed vessel was supported upon two iron anvils, and heated in the interval between the supports by a large Bunsen lamp. The resulting explosion (which was doe to over-pressure only and not to any more occult cause) was exceedingly violent. No small damage was done to the room in which the experiment was undertaken; and the noise was like that of a cannon. Those of the pieces which could be recovered are shown in Fig. 1. Upon examining the wreck, it was noticed that one of the heavy bronze end-caps had preserved its circular section and still contained that portion of the barrel of the tube which had been screwed into it, while the other end-cap contained no portion of the tube, and was moreover sprung into a shape more or less elliptical, as if from excessive lateral strain. It was also observed that the large pieces of the shattered boiler predominated towards the end which had been closed by the un-sprung end-cap. The reasonable explanation, in view of the facts, was, that over-pressure had caused the boiler to yield through the screw-threads at A B, Fig. 2, and the righthand end-cap had blown off, thus leaving the boiler half filled with water, greatly super-heated for the new (atmospheric) pressure to which it was suddenly reduced; that this water had consequently sprung instantly into steam with dynamite effect, shattering the tube and springing the remaining end-cap. The large pieces would be expected at the open end of the boiler, as at that point the "tamping "would have been that of the atmosphere only. This explanation assumes a rupture to have been caused by gradually increased pres-

Jan 1, 1893

ZAY JEFFRIES,* Cleveland, Ohio (written discussion?).-The microscope has, indeed, proved a mighty tool in the study of the structures of substances. It is limited in its resolving power to the wave length of the light used for illumination. A little in resolving power can be gained by using ultraviolet rays, which can only be detected by the photographic plate. Even the highest powered microscope only permits the study of aggregates of millions of atoms. The x-ray spectrometer, on the other hand, makes it possible to study the positions of the atoms in a crystal. The positions of the atoms in over fifty crystals have now been ascertained. But in amorphous substances the x-ray spectrometer is only able to tell us that the atoms seem to have no regular arrangement; the actual arrangement and method of grouping is still a mystery. In most perfectly formed crystals and in so-called "grains" in metals, the x-ray spectrometer teaches us that colloids seem to play no role inasmuch as the atoms are arranged in regular layers rather than in random clusters. In the boundary region between crystalline grains of like as well as unlike substances and in amorphous substances like glass, it seems probable that the random clusters, or colloids, play an important role. There still remains the application of wave lengths connecting the ultraviolet and x-rays both by direct reflection or diffraction and by the ultramicroscope. In the study of substances like glass, for example, it may be possible to identify the clusters or molecules by one wave length and to study the positions of the atoms in a cluster by using a smaller wave length. Any light that can be thrown on this important unknown subject and its relation to the properties of substances is therefore very welcome, and Mr. Alexander's paper is so written as to stimulate thought and experimentation in this direction. JEROME ALEXANDER (author's reply to discussion ?).-Col. Bancroft states' that in the case of alloys, the mass is always crystalline. While this generally may be so in the case of alloys, as ordinarily met with, before the alloy reaches this state or condition, its constituent particles must be in a still more finely dispersed state. In alloys, the speed' of transition between the finely dispersed state where the phases are amorphous, and the crystalline state where the phases are of known composi-

Jan 5, 1919

By H. J. Struth

Conditions in the gasoline market undoubtedly influence the oil industry's general economic situation to a greater degree than perhaps any other single factor. No matter how efficiently the oil industry manages to conduct its producing operations, a drop in the price of gasoline exerts definite pressure upon the posted price of crude oil in the field. Efforts of the recent past have shown that profits from the producing division of the industry are closely tied in with the course of the gasoline market. When refinery gasoline prices are depressed, as they have been during recent months, it is utterly impossible for purchasers to maintain a crude market that is commensurate with the cost of production, regardless of how well balanced the producing situation may be. In fact, the producer can no longer regard his operations in the light of an independent unit of the oil industry, since his financial well-being is directly dependent upon the well-being of the refiner. Because gasoline is the principal constituent of crude oil, it is obvious that profitable refining operations can only be maintained through profitable gasoline markets. Likewise, when the price of gasoline influences a profit for the refinery it also influences the prosperity of the producer, through the advent of higher and more profitable posted prices for crude oil in the field. Financial results for 1932 showed material improvement over the preceding year, primarily because the price of gasoline was maintained at levels somewhat above those of 1931. Consequently, the producer was able to record improvement in the crude market, through a somewhat higher level of posted prices. While effective methods of prora-t,ion of crude production are given credit for the advance recorded in the crude market last year, it is also a fact that the advent of higher prices for gasoline had a direct influence upon the posted prices of crude oil. For example, when gasoline was sold in Group 3 at 2 3/4 a gallon in June and July, 1931, the price of 36-gravity Mid-Continent crude was down to its lowest point of only 18c a barrel. As refinery prices advanced, however, there was a corresponding advance in posted prices of crude oil. Thus, when Group 3 gasoline commanded a price of 5c a gallon

Jan 1, 1933

By William M. Agar

Now that both the national and state legislatures are seeking ways of reducing expenses, the appropriations for geological investigation and for the study of mineral resources have been greatly reduced and in some cases entirely stopped. Is this policy justified? The sums saved by these reductions are always small. If the work accomplished by these surveys has no intrinsic value to the community, but is only an interesting way of spending some of the people's money when that money is plentiful, there should be no surveys at any time. If, on the other hand, they perform a necessary function, it is indeed foolish and short-sighted to save these paltry sums to the detriment of the community. It is not my purpose to undertake a general justification of geological surveys. Rather, 1 wish to call attention to the work of one state survey that has been discontinued, and to indicate ways in which the work was valuable to the people, even though that state's mineral resources are not very important, and why it should be continued. Though at one time in Connecticut's history iron mining and smelting were important, and copper was mined in appreciable quantities in two localities, it is many years since it could be regarded as a mining state. At present Connecticut stands far down among the states in the value of its mineral products. Granite for architectural and structural purposes, trap rock, clay, agricultural lime, feldspar and quartz, together with a few other nonmetallic minerals, are produced in appreciable quantities, but the natural resources of the state consist at present much more largely in its attractive scenery, woods, lakes, shore line, and in the opportunities that these offer for rest and recreation. Is the prosecution of geological work in such a state a waste of the taxpayer's money? Or can it be that though it was formerly valuable, the work is now completed? The only way to answer these questions is to review the geological work done in the past and to consider the type of information the people want, as reflected in the requests that have been received by the director of the survey in the last few years. There have been two periods during which Connecticut has supported geological work within its borders. The first began in 1835 when Percival

Jan 1, 1935

By T. Wasson

Midland and Isabella counties have been the centers of activities for the year 1932. The major part of the 6,967,000 bbl. produced during the year was obtained from the old Mt. Pleasant field and the Eastern Extension field. The total production to the end of 1932 for Michigan, from all fields since discovery, is 20,679,600 bbl. Production in the Eastern Extension field was obtained from Dundee limestone of Devonian age, at a depth of about 3600 ft. As a result of the year's activity in this area, the limits of the Eastern Extension have been defined. No new fields have been discovered. A number of prospective areas have been drilled and condemned by dry holes. Probably the most outstanding development of the year was the discovery of oil on the Yost farm, in sec. 35 of Greendale Township, Midland County, by the Pure Oil Co., in the early part of December. Production is from the Dundee limestone similar to that in the Eastern Extension but is 4 miles south of that area. The first well has averaged about 500 bbl. per day since completion. It is near the center of a solid block held by the Pure Oil Co., so that rapid development due to competitive drilling is not expected. During the early part of the year the Midland-Isabella area was under proration, but on May 17 proration restrictions were discontinued and remained so until the end of the year. While the Eastern Extension saw the principal activity, some work was done in other fields of Midland and Isabella counties, but very little new production was added. The Vernon field on the north showed a slight increase in production over 1931. The Leaton field decreased. The well in Porter Township, Midland County, is still kept in the production ranks but very little drilling was done in that area. The old Saginaw field, Saginaw County, still remains the only spot in the state where commercial production is obtained from the Berea sand. It showed a slight decline over 1931 with no new producers for the year. The Muskegon field on the west side of the state showed a considerable decline over 1931, but owing to the rejuvenation of some wells by the use of acid this drop was not as great as might have been expected. Only two new producers were drilled in that area.

Jan 1, 1933

By T. F. Petty

Oil and gas production in North Central Texas has been found in sands and limestones in the Cisco, Canyon, Strawn and Bend series of Pennsylvanian age and in lime of pre-Pennsylvanian age. Production ranges in depth below the surface from 150 to 4500 ft.; a few wells have been drilled to depths in excess of 5500 ft. and penetrated rocks of pre-Cambrian age. In Table 1, the average depth of the pools is shown. No mention, however, is made in this table of approximately 30,000 bbl. of oil produced in Callahan County from a pre-Pennsylvanian pay, presumably the Ellenberger, and an excess of 1,000,000 bbl. of oil produced from limestone, which has been identified as Silurian in the south part of Young County. This well is being produced at the present time. In Table 1 a great many pools of minor importance are listed, which are merely productive spots, and throughout the various producing counties there are numerous similar spots, which might be listed as pools. Their production, however, is listed in the county totals. In Table 2, the totals of the oil wells, gas wells, and dry holes drilled before Jan. 1,1935, include only wells on which records are available to the writer. In Brown, Callahan and Shackelford counties 2924 very shallow wells (150 to 600 ft. deep) have been drilled, on which the record is not available. Possibly there are other wells that were drilled before the district was adequately scouted. No classification as to the depths of this total of 30,644 wells is available at present. Initially, nearly all the oil wells of North Central Texas produced gas, and several areas producing dry gas have been partly developed. A number of casinghead gasoline plants strip the gasoline from the gas produced with the oil, and the manufacture of carbon black is an important industry in Stephens County. Dry and residue gas are marketed through systems serving the various towns of the district, San Angelo to the southwest and the cities of Forth Worth and Dallas to the east. Considerable gas is used in repressuring several pools, the most important of which are the Stover of Brown County and the Cook of Shackelford County. During the past year, 32 gas wells were completed, adding a

Jan 1, 1935

G. SHERBURNE ROGERS,* Washington, D. C. (written discussion?).- We are indebted to Captain Lucas for an interesting contribution to the literature of the salt-dome oil fields, and especially for his suggestion that a more aggressive method -of prospecting be adopted. The occasional discovery of new fields on, the Gulf Coast is in itself sufficient to show that the oil possibilities of the region are by no means exhausted, and those who have studied the area most thoroughly are the most optimistic regarding its future. Nevertheless, the search for new fields, according to present methods, involves the expenditure of great sums of money annually, for the proportion of dry holes to producing wells drilled yearly in the Gulf Coast region is much' greater than in most areas, even if all the wells drilled in what is commonly regarded as proved territory are included. Not only are the present methods of locating new domes very uncertain, but when a dome is discovered there is no assurance that it will be oil-bearing; or, if so, whether the oil occurs in the cap-rock, in the sands above it, or in some small isolated lens of sand far down on the flanks of the salt mass. As Captain Lucas points out, about all we positively know is that the domes are there and that some of them are oil-bearing; their origin is a matter of controversy and the original source of the oil is conjectural. Under these conditions, it is not surprising that the search for oil is conducted more or less blindly and that dry holes are common. Many wells are drilled each year in an endeavor to find oil at depths of 2000 or 3000 ft. (609 to 914 m.) or less, in locations which most geologists would condemn without hesitation. As Captain Lucas suggests, the money spent in this way might be used to far better advantage in, drilling one deep well in a carefully selected locality. Opinions may differ as to whether such a, well would find oil, and many geologists will probably believe that the chances are against it, yet all will agree that the boring, whether it finds oil or not, will probably throw light on the origin of the domes and on the source and mode of accumulation of the oil, and will therefore be of great interest, not only to the scientist, but to the oil operator.

Jan 10, 1918

By Dart Wantland, C. A. Heiland

There once was a little kid, whose lot was a very tough one until he grew up. His parents did not have much in common; from all indications, it is probable that the child was not wanted. His father Geology and his mother Physics separated shortly after his birth, which occurred during the World War amid a smoke screen of mathematics. He was kicked around a great deal. His parents could not agree on a name, and they finally christened him "Geophysics," for short. His relatives insisted that the name should be "Geophysical Prospecting," "Geophysical Exploration" or "Exploratory Geophysics"; though the youngster has grown up by now, this battle is still going on. His father did not think the child would amount to much until he began to show some unexpected talents, which were acquired, no doubt, from his mother Physics. His progress caused his father no little worry, and he began to wonder whether his offspring would help him in his business when he grew up or would set up shop in competition with the old man. His aunt Petroleum watched his growth with benevolent interest; his uncle Mining remained rather skeptical and cousin Civil Engineering not only assumed the attitude of the man from Missouri but was not much convinced even after he had been shown. Making a long story short, the kid decided that he had to stand on his own feet and get along as best he could. Having come from a good family he possessed some outstanding characteristics such as resourcefulness and a reasonable amount of business ability. He therefore decided that it would be to his advantage to follow in his father's and mother's footsteps as much as possible, and develop the good qualities of both. As a result, the youngster did fairly well for himself, and his relatives decided that it might be to their advantage to be on better terms with him. Father Geology had come to the conclusion that the boy could be very helpful to him and now wanted him to live in his house. His mother, who had brought him through the teething and measles stages, felt quite capable of bringing up the boy without the help of his father; and, as the fairer sex will do, would confide to a neighbor every now and then that his

Jan 1, 1940

By Robert Uhley, Tsvi Meidav, L. Scharon

Before National Lead built an industrial plant on its Fredricktown property, some 100 miles south of St. Louis, a 750x500-ft area on the proposed site was investigated by electrical resistivity, seismic refraction, and churn drilling. Data were accumulated to prepare an isopach map of the overburden and to determine soundness of the dolomite bedrock and the depth to bedrock at fixed points. The site was on a gently sloping hillside. Elevations above sea level ranged from 760 ft in the northwest corner to 820 ft along the eastern edge, giving a total relief of 60 ft. There were no major drainage features, but in the northern part of the plant site there was an indicated depression area which later was interpreted as reflecting subsurface conditions in the bedrock. No rock was exposed in the entire plant site area; the surface was characterized by soil and overburden. GEOLOGY Prevailing geology in the area of investigation was relatively simple—Bonneterre dolomite overlain by residuum. The red overburden was that derived from the weathered Bonneterre. Some chert was present, interpreted in the general area as a weathering of both the Bonneterre dolomite and younger sedimentary rocks such as the Potosi dolomite. During the period of actual measurements the residuum varied from moist near surface on the western edge of the proposed site to dry near surface on the eastern edge, and for this reason overburden resistivities ranged from low on the west to high on the east. Seismic velocities were low, since the material was not well packed. The bedrock encountered was dolomite, specifically the Bonneterre of Upper Cambrian age which, according to McQueen,' consists of an upper dark gray member and a lower light gray member. These have been further divided into four zones, in ascending sequence a dark gray, sandy argillaceous dolomite; a dark brown or black, fine-grained dolomite: a light gray, finely crystalline, compact dolomite; and, at the top, a dark brown, finely crystalline, compact dolomite. In the area of investigation the upper two zones were encountered in the drilling tests as constituting the bedrock. The dolomite varies widely in porosity, which is low in the dense, fine-grained layers. In this area, therefore, both electrical resistivities and seismic velocities were high. Fracture zones in the Bonneterre are nearly Geology, and may extend to some depth, causing considerable deep weathering. It was realized that over deep fracturing the apparent resistivities

Jan 1, 1960

By C. A. Heiland

THERE once was a little kid, whose lot was a very tough one until he grew up. His parents did not have much in common; from all indica-tions, it is probable that the child was not wanted. His father Geology and his mother Physics separated shortly after his birth, which occurred during the World War amid a smoke screen of mathematics. He was kicked around a great deal. His parents could not agree on a name, and they finally christened him "Geophysics," for short. His relatives insisted that the name should be "Geophysical Prospecting," "Geophys-ical Exploration" or "Exploratory Geophysics"; though the youngster has grown up by now, this battle is still going on. His father did not think the child would amount to much until he began to show some unexpected talents, which were acquired, no doubt, from his mother Physics. His progress caused his father no little worry, and he began to wonder whether his offspring would help him in his business when he grew up or would set up shop in competition with the old man. His aunt Petroleum watched his growth with benevolent interest; his uncle Mining remained rather skeptical and cousin Civil Engineering not only assumed the attitude of the man from Missouri but was not much con-vinced even after he had been shown. Making a long story short, the kid decided that he had to stand on his own feet and get along as best he could. Having come from a good family . he possessed some outstanding characteristics such as resourcefulness and a reasonable amount of business ability. He therefore decided that it would be to his advantage to follow in his father's and mother's foot-steps as much as possible, and develop the good qualities of both. As a result, the youngster did fairly well for himself, and his relatives decided that it might be to their advantage to be on better terms with him. Father Geology had come to the conclusion that the boy could be very helpful to him and now wanted him to live in his house. His mother, who had brought him through the teething and measles stages, felt quite capable of bringing up the boy without the help of his father; and, as the fairer sex will do, would confide to a neighbor every now and then that his

Jan 1, 1938

By A. F. Taggart, Nathaniel Arbiter

The chemical reaction occurring in collection of nonmetallic minerals with amine-type collectors was early postulated by students of flotation phenomena to be metathesis between the mineral and the collector, involving exchange between the amine-bearing (aminium) ion and the cation of the mineral, and formation at the mineral surface of an oriented film of the amine salt of the mineral anion. Qualitative evidence of exchange has been obtained on several occasions at Columbia. Thus 1000 C.C. of a solution containing 495 mg of laurylamine hydrochloride was shaken 17 min. with 100 grams of barite and ground in a porcelain mill to pass a 200-mesh screen; the mixture was then set aside for 48 hr. Filtrate therefrom analyzed 476 mg. per liter of laurylamine hydrochloride. There was no substantial loss of chloride ion (78.4 mg. per liter in the original; 74 in the filtrate). No successful analyses were concluded for barium ion. Earlier, confessedly rough work with scheelite indicated a solution gain in Ca++ equivalent to about one-half the aminium ion lost. Real quantitative roof of the exchange, in the form of an established stoichiometric balance, is unknown to the authors. The data of the present paper, however, obtained from experiments designed on the basis of the exchange hypothesis, constitute strong evidence of its truth, and at the same time point the way to economic utilization of the expensive nitrogen-bearing collectors in concentration of the low-priced nonmetallic minerals. The basic postulate underlying the experiments performed was that, if the collecting reaction is of the type R+ + Y- + MX = RX + M+ + Y- where R = aminium ion, Y = the anion of the amine salt, and M and X are, respectively, the cation and anion of the mineral, the reaction should obey qualitatively the implications of the mass-action and solubility-product laws. This is to say that coating and collection should be aided by the addition to the solution of either ion (R+ or X-) of the collector-coating compound, and hindered by the addition of either of the ions M+ or y-. Experimental work comprised determination of (,) the relative solubilities of the laurylammonium salts of a variety of nonmetallic-mineral anions; and (21 the contact angles' of various minerals in solutions containing different concentrations of the postulated controlling ions. Semiquantitative flotation tests were run With barite as checks on the diagnostic character of the contact angles. The amine

Jan 1, 1947