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By Olli Haavisto, Heikki Häkkänen, Tommi Kauppinen, Navid Khajehzadeh

Raman analysis is a well-established method for finding the abundant minerals in an ore sample. In this study, Raman spectroscopy is tested as a method for rapid and contactless on-line mineral analysis. Rapidness might enable on-site analysis of rock drillcore, which in turn would lead to more cost-efficient solutions in mineral exploration. This paper discusses the use of Raman analysis to identify minerals and to measure their concentration. The sample set under study consists of rock drillcore collected from Agnico-Eagle Kittilä Mine, Finland. Selected parts of the sample set are measured by Raman spectroscopy and the minerals are identified using reference spectra from a public source. Moreover, the direct measurement of concentration of different minerals with the help of Non-negative least squares (NNLS) optimisation algorithm is considered. The optimisation algorithm was constructed to form a linear combination of reference spectra which best represent the measured spectrum, or an average of measured spectra, from an ore sample. The results show that NNLS can identify abundant minerals in a given sample. Also through this method of analysis the results of a traditional point-count method can be expanded: It was observed that, due to grain size, multiple minerals consistently appear in the spectra measured over an area, which means that point-count method is not a proper way to interpret the spectra. This can be seen as a new result, as formerly the discussion has attended to other methods.

Jan 1, 2014

By Matthew Thurley

Optimisation and control of comminution, pelletization, and agglomeration processes is a complex task with large potential for gains in productivity, energy efficiency, and particle size distribution quality. One factor in realising these gains is the requirement for fully-automated online particle size distribution measurement. Moreover, online particle size distribution measurement that is based on the particles on the visible surface and can avoid or mitigate substantial errors that result from under-sizing overlapped particles and over-sizing areas of fines particles. Literature review indicates a body of substantially 2D photographic based particle size measurement systems that suffer from a large number of significant errors except in the simplest case of a monolayer of particles under good illumination with limited color variation in the material. In order to measure the visible particles on a pile there are a number of requirements including; avoiding particle delineation errors due to variation in material color and shadows, detect overlapping versus non-overlapping particles, and identify areas of fine particles as fines and not large rocks. Results are presented using a fully-automated online measurement system of crushed rock on conveyor belt using a 3D surface laser profile. The system provides continuous online measurement and results are shown on over four hours of production after the primary crusher. Size distribution results are calculated using volumetric estimation of the particles on the surface of the pile. The results show a strong capability to discriminate size variation especially in the 10% and 20% passing values. Furthermore results show that if areas of fines are misclassified as large rocks, and overlapped particles misclassified as small rocks, then a near complete loss of discrimination occurs for the P10 and P20 values which become largely constant values.

Jan 1, 2014

By Ventsislav Stoilov, Angel Angelov, Ivan Korolev, Antti Remes, Todor Pukov, Stoyan Gaydardzhiev

"The process modeling and simulation studies aim for better process operation and favorable environmental impact. The objective of this work is to set up a simulation model of the Assarel copper flotation circuit for planning and optimization of the process with the aim of increased metal recovery. The model is parameterized based on laboratory flotation tests of ore samples from the Assarel mine together with mineralogical studies by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Mineral Liberation Analysis (MLA). A combination of several techniques allows reliable identification of mineralogical composition of the selected samples. The changes in the proportion between sulfide minerals in various products along the circuit have been also documented. Further, this information is used in the simulation model and in data reconciliation procedures for establishing mass balance. The simulation accuracy is studied by comparing the simulations with the plant survey based mass balance. Constructed simulation model can be used to run alternative process scenarios. As an example, the flotation circuit performance with different reagent regimes is simulated based on data from batch flotation tests. Two reagents were considered for this purpose, dithiocarbamate-based one and xanthogen formate/mercaptan blend. It has been revealed that these reagents do not have the same influence on the selective flotation. The one improves flotation of gold and overall recovery but without notable selective action. In contrast, the other showed better selectivity towards copper, rejecting more gangue and lowering gold recovery. The model is also applicable for process optimization studies with different feed compositions, flowrates and circuit configurations. INTRODUCTION In the pursuit for elevated technological indicators, finding an optimal set of process parameters fully utilizing the potential of the equipment is a key factor to success. Over the past decades, there has been a substantial development in flotation circuit optimization through performance benchmarking using metallurgical modelling and steady-state computer simulation. Practical simulation engineering tools are based on experimental data obtained from laboratory tests and from plant surveys and operation data. With the help of flotation models, it is possible to study grade-recovery response with different feed compositions and throughputs, and with various cell-operating parameters, as well as to evaluate and design different flowsheet configurations. Outotec’s HSC Chemistry® software, which incorporates simulation and mass balancing modules alongside with several other tools, can assist with this optimization (Mattsson et al., 2015)."

Jan 1, 2018

By D. Izerdem, S. L. Ergun

"Beneficiation of the finely disseminated valuable minerals has been an important issue in the mineral processing field for decades. Treatment of the fine materials becomes difficult with using traditional gravity concentration equipment. To investigate particles behavior in a commonly used conventional gravity concentration equipment, a comprehensive study was undertaken in a plant, which only consists spiral concentrators as concentration units. Spiral concentrators require relatively coarse material to effectively concentrate valuables as well as offering greater simplicity for especially higher grade feeds. In the current work, chromite ore (d80 = 290 µm) was treated using spiral concentrators and the performance of spiral concentrators was examined. The design of the separation circuit comprised of rougher, cleaner and scavenger stages. The resultant fractions produced by each separation unit and feed samples were analyzed to identify the particle sizes, mineral liberations and chromite content. Grade and recovery comparisons were presented in size-by-size manner and the separation tendency of the particles were determined in varying feed rate conditions. The overall results indicated valuable mineral loss of the plant and alternative suggestions were pointed to reach the target values.INTRODUCTION Spiral concentrators are simple low energy consuming devices, which are generally used for pre-concentration of the minerals. They are cost efficient equipment separating minerals mainly based on density differences of the minerals. The adjustable splitters remove the concentrate as the remaining stream continues to move down the spiral. Separation on a spiral is achieved through a combination of forces that act on particles as they move down the trough of the spiral. The main forces known to act on the particle on a spiral are the gravitational force, centrifugal force, hydrodynamic drag and Bagnold force (Atasoy and Spottiswood, 1995; Burt, 1984). Since the classification in a spiral concentrator depends on particle specific gravity and size, the operation of spirals can be analyzed using size recovery or partition curves (Bazin et al., 2014). Spiral concentrators possess multiple design parameters for a variety of applications. The design parameters that govern the performance of the spiral can be identified as the diameter, number of turns, slope, pitch and the profile of the trough. For an efficient separation on a spiral concentrator, the properties of the slurry flowing on a spiral, ore texture, percent solids and flow rate play important roles."

Jan 1, 2018

By V. Sheikhzadeh, M. Saghaeian, R. Hejazi, A. Abazarpoor

Green pellet strength including drop number and green compression is highly depended on particles size and shape. The used grinding method, ball mill or high pressure grinding roll (HPGR), directly vary the particle size and shape. Considering mode of pellet crack, green pellet is composed of particle-binder-moisture system. Different type of forces existed in such a system to create a stable green pellet: solid particle interaction, magnetic, binding and cohesive forces in the interface of particle-moisture. The pellet failure can occur at solid-liquid interface and/or through liquid phase. Pellet crack occurs when crack passed through entirely the plane failure. In this research, the effect of particle size and shape of pellet feed on green pellet strength has been investigated. It was deduced that green pellet strength highly improved by increase of specific surface area. The drop number and green compression strength of pellets prepared by HPGR was higher than ball mill. It was found that the main reason responsible for this difference was the particle shape. Capillary force is responsible for part of pellet force and improves by decrease of particle size. Also more elongated shape of HPGR particles resulted in higher capillary force due to thinner interface layer between particles. The less circular shape of particles lead to improvement of capillary force as can be occurred for HPGR particles. The rougher shape of HPGR particles resulted in higher wettability of particles and better diffusion of water among particles. In fact the rougher particles means lower connection angle. Aspect ratio of particles was of great importance of crack growth because the required energy of pellet failure increases directly. The required energy for pellet failure increases by increment of particle aspect ratio. The relationship among crack failure force, roughness and aspect ratio has been modeled considering 3 shape descriptors.

Jan 1, 2018

By G. Aguilera

The mineral suspensions do not present a newtonian behavior as their continuous phase; they can be pseudoplastic, dilatant, or both. The viscosity becomes as the most important rheological variable because the different industrial processes involve a wide variety of rheological scenes, with a specific rheological behavior for each one. Some authors have tried to model the viscosity of suspensions considering the volumetric fraction of solids and others have also kept in mind the size of the particles (Einstein, 1906; Batchelor, 1977; Jinescu, 1974; Krieger and Dougherty, 1959; Tangsathitkulchai and Austin, 1988). Others consider the shear rate (Cross, 1965; Hershel-Bulckley, 1926; Bingham, 1916, etc). However, none of the models is able to simulate the viscosity involving the physical, chemical and mechanic factors at the same time for crowded suspensions. A new model based on Neural Networks is presented, taking into account all the variables of ceramic clay suspensions and chemical additives. Keywords: viscosity, clay minerals, neural networks, simulation, mathematical function

Sep 1, 2012

By Ahmad Amini, Hadi Abdollahi, Pouya Karimi

Due to detrimental effects of cyanidation process on the environment in gold industry, application of cyanide alternatives such as thiourea are being highly considered in recent projects. In this study, the extraction of gold from poly metal ore, using thiourea was precisely investigated. The representative sample contained 2.5 ppm Au and 160 ppm Ag. The sample was categorized as oxide gold ore, because the main part of its pyrite was changed to iron oxide and hydroxide such as goethite and lepidocrosite. According to mineralogy, the main gangue mineral was quartz. It shows that gold grains are free and interlocked with quartz matrix. Also, the presence of a high amount of silver in free and sulfide forms and also the low content of other sulfide minerals such as base metal sulfides is a remarkable point of these studies. In the gold extraction process with thiourea, there are several parameters that affect the rate of gold dissolution such as concentrations of thiourea as a gold lixiviant and ferric sulfate as an oxidant, pH and size fraction of feed and leaching time. The influence of these parameters on the gold dissolution rate were investigated and optimized. The results showed that the concentration of thiourea is the most influential parameter which could increase the gold recovery to 71% (at 10 g/kg sample). The optimal amount of ferric sulfate was determined as 6 g/kg sample. Also, the optimal levels of size fraction of feed and pH of solution were 88% under 75 micron and 2 as acidity; respectively. Leaching time was 6 hrs. In addition, this sample was leached with cyanide and the optimized values of size fraction of d88=75 microns, pH=10.45, 2500 ppm of sodium cyanide with time leaching of 24 hours were concluded for maximum recovery of gold in solution. Finally, the results of cyanidation tests were compared to the thiourea dissolution after optimizing all affected parameters in cyanidation process.

Jan 1, 2018

By G. Unland

The sizing of crushers depends on the expected crushing forces. However, the crushing forces develop differently with every individual rock while it is compressed by the working surfaces of the crusher. For sizing, this compression process has to be characterized by the maximum crushing force. The maximum crushing force depends on the strength, shape and size of the rock, the amount and velocity of the imposed displacement of the working surfaces of the crusher on the rock and the conditions of the contact surfaces. From experience it is known that the strength of the material and, therefore, the crushing forces depend on the size of the specimen. This dependence is the so called size effect. The determination is based on compression tests. The force development is recorded during the compression of the specimen and for every individual test the maximum force is determined. The occurring maximum crushing forces of several rocks with the same diameter comminuted under the same conditions can be assessed by a mean value and a variance. The relationship between the mean values of the cross section related maximum crushing forces FAmax and the corresponding sizes d of the specimens can then be described by mathematical functions. They are derived from different approaches (phenomenological, statistical and statistical-physical methods). The phenomenological methods are subjective and yield functions depending on the assumptions of a person, whereas the statistical and statistical-physical methods are based on an evaluated function and the optimization of the parameters.

Jan 1, 2014

By U. Ulusoy

Surface roughness and acuteness are known as the two of the main properties of the particle morphology affecting the behavior of the powders in the process. Since the techniques used for the morphological characterization of powders by 2-dimensional microscopic measurement from the polished sections that have some disadvantages, the 3-dimensional analysis has often relied on measurements of particle morphology. A review of literature data was presented for high-grade barite and pyrite particles ground by ball and autogenous mills to determine the morphological properties using a new 3-D approach based on BET nitrogen gas adsorption and Permaran methods. Micromeritics Flowsorb II 2300 instrument which employs BET nitrogen adsorption technique was used for the specific surface area measurements and the roughness of the particles. Permaran (manufactured by Outokumpu Oy) was used for the measurements of airflow resistance of powder samples for the acuteness. Spherical glass beads were used as reference sample for the acuteness measurements. The obtained parameters, which are surface roughness and acuteness, were corre-lated with the floatability performance of those mineral particles. The flotation performances of those particles ground in different mills (ball and autogenous) were also evaluated by a Hallimond tube. The results showed that lower roughness and acuteness values caused higher flotation recoveries for both barite and pyrite particles that were tested independently in different type of the mills. In other words; particles with smooth surfaces resulted in better floatability for barite and pyrite minerals studied.

Jan 1, 2014

By Daniel Saramak

"Issues concerning effectiveness of the high-pressure comminution process in technological circuits of copper ore treatment were presented in the paper. Crushing processes taking place in high-pressure grinding rolls devices (HPGR) are currently one of the most efficient methods of hard ore size reduction in terms of the energy consumption. The HPGR products are characterized by a fine particle size and the micro-cracks formation in individual particles, which appear in downstream grinding processes, decreasing their energy consumption. The purpose of this paper was to analyse the effectiveness of a ball mill grinding process depending on the changeable conditions of run for the HPGR crushing process. The research programme carried out included crushing tests in the laboratory scale HPGR device at various settings of the operating pressure volume and selected qualitative properties of the feed material (i.e. particle size distribution). Particle size distribution analyses of all HPGR products were performed and in the next stage the material was a feed to the ball mill grinding process. Grinding process kinetics were investigated through the determination of mass recoveries of individual particle size fractions after defined grinding time intervals. The models, defining the grinding process effectiveness as a function of changeable conditions of HPGR process run, were determined on the basis of obtained results. Based on these models the optimal grinding time in a ball mill was specified which is, in turn, the basis for optimization of operation of the technological comminution circuits for a given material type. The obtained results proved that the application of HPGR devices in a given copper ore comminution circuit may improve the effectiveness of the downstream grinding process which leads to improvement of the entire circuit work efficiency through decreasing the process energy consumption and enhancing product size reduction."

Jan 1, 2014

By U. A. Peuker

"Steam Pressure Filtration (SPF) is a modified cake filtration process and is characterized by both washing and excellent de-watering of the filter cake. Compared to conventional gas differential pressure filtration, the filter cake is treated with saturated or superheated steam replacing pressurized air. Invented in the early last century, Steam Pressure Filtration has reached technical maturity in the 1990ies for inorganic particle systems, fine chemicals and coal. Especially the de-watering performance for fine particles systems below 50 µm make Steam Pressure Filtration an excellent option for the processing of fine tailings streams, to produce a stable material, which can be described by the methods of solids mechanics instead of paste rheology. The washing, which is due to the condensing steam, is able to reduce the ion load of the solid. This additional effect is able to generate a dry tailings material, which shows a reduced leaching potential of mobile ions, which originally derive from the process water. INTRODUCTION Steam Pressure Filtration is a process concept especially of hyperbaric filtration, which started its market entry in the 1990ies (Bott 1996, Bott 2002). Even though there have been many attempts to apply steam on filters before, the success story began with the combination of hyperbaric filtration and steam application and the technical solution to limit the steam treatment to a defined zone on the filter. This resulted from the scientific findings that steam mainly enhances the de-watering during the mechanical filtration (Gerl 1999). There are no or minor positive effects of steam application to a filtration process during cake filtration and after the steam breakthrough has occurred. Furthermore that time a sufficient control technology to regulate the steam consumption as well as suitable filter cloths became available. There is a growing need for de-watering technology in the mining industry, not only for the concentrate but also for the tailings streams. Several reasons argue against the established solution of damping the tails as suspension or paste into tailings ponds. There are ecological, political, societal and economic reasons, which question the tailings ponds more and more. Due to the increasing costs in the building and monitoring of tailings dams, which contain the tailing ponds, the concept of dry stocking using filtration technology comes into the game (Jansson 2016). Dry stocking converts the tailings stream form the suspension or paste state, into a material, which can be stockpiled. The latter typically is a moist flowable disperse particle system. The conversion involves a de-watering step, in which different types of filter equipment can be used, e.g. filter presses, membrane filter presses, automatic press filters or hyperbaric filters. For coarse products also vacuum filter can be applied. Due to its excellent de-watering performance and the easy scale-up properties Steam Pressure Filtration is further option for dry tailings stacking."

Jan 1, 2018

By Dee Bradshaw

"Process mineralogy’ is a form of applied mineralogy which focuses on addressing problems associated with the processing of ores. ‘Mineralogy’ is the scientific study of minerals and ‘mineral processing’ is the production of concentrates from ores. ‘Process mineralogy,’ however can be defined as the practical study of minerals associated with the processing of ores, concentrates and smelter products for the development and optimisation of metallurgical flowsheets, including the waste and environmental management considerations. This hybrid discipline consists of teams that include geologists, mineralogists, samplers, mineral processors and often others, working together. The degree of cross-training, communication and trust dictates the potential capacity of the team and where an appropriate work dynamic is fostered, in which relationships flourish as much as does the ethic of technical excellence, it is possible to develop technical capabilities that surpass those of conventional teams. The world’s demand for metals is ever increasing and ore deposits available for extraction and processing are lower grade and more complex, often containing deleterious elements that require tailored treatment. Generally, in the past, the technical challenges only needed to be overcome and assessed economically to make an ore deposit viable; increasingly and in the future, a more sustainable approach including environmental and societal considerations is needed. Process mineralogical assessment is increasingly providing the critical information that stands between failure or collapse and survival or success of some mining operations. In this paper, selected case studies are used to demonstrate the valuable role of the process mineralogy tools being used to provide the platform for innovative technology development. Their common attributes are discussed and distilled, thus providing some insights and potential guidance for addressing some of the likely future challenges of the mining industry."

Jan 1, 2014

By W. S. Eu

Reduction of weathered mineral ores can initiate phase transformation which can affect either their activation or deactivation, subsequently influencing the extent of extraction of desired metals in a leaching reagent. The reduction of ilmenite ores for one occurs as a series of parallel, solid state reactions which at present has no known mechanisms, although the evidence of their effects is abundant. Understanding these reactions may well be the key to uncovering the mechanism of ilmenite activation, hence enabling precise control of its reaction process to maximize yield of TiO2 extraction. However, documenting the solid state reactions in the reduction of ilmenite is challenging due to the ore complexity, the number of simultaneous reactions and the difficulty of capturing critical intermediate reactions and phase transformations during processing. The phase transformations of ilmenite minerals reduced at temperatures up to 850°C were investigated in this study. Mineral transformations were studied in-situ using synchrotron radiation based X-ray powder diffraction with temperature resolved tests. The effect of the extent of reduction and specific mineral transformations were verified by leaching reduced ore with sulphuric acid. The re-sults suggest that transformation of major mineral phases occurs within of specific window of operation and thermal treatment appears to influence the extent of activation and leachability of ilmenite minerals.

Jan 1, 2014

By C. Stollberg

The recovery of valuable materials from electronic waste is of growing importance for the re-source management not only in the industrialized nations. Being a significant step in an innovative automated process for recycling of metals and plastics from used electric and electronic equipment, the results of the work introduced below, prove the applicability of microbial leaching of metals from printed circuit boards (PCBs) at industrial scale. Within the first project step, which started in March 2005, experiments in shaking flasks with a mixed culture of chemolitotrophic bacteria (mainly Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans) were carried out to study the solubilization of non-ferrous metals present in the electronic waste. It was found that the best results were achieved by means of a two-stage process in which leaching of these metals was carried out by acidified ferric sulphate solutions generated as a result of the prior bacterial oxidation of ferrous ions to the ferric state. Special reactor systems for bacterial generation of such solutions and for the subsequent leaching of non-ferrous metals from the waste were developed, constructed and tested under laboratory and pilot scale conditions. The optimum technological parameters such as concentration of iron ions, pH-value, temperature and presence of nutrients were established for both reactor systems. Parameters such as particle size, pulp density and flow rate of the suspensions being leached were established for the leaching process carried out under continuous-flow conditions. The complex flow sheet reflects a highly efficient technology on the basis of metal recovery, environmental effect and economical acceptance. The process was successfully implemented into an industrial demonstration unit.

Jan 1, 2014

By S. Koca

Vast amount of fly ash, bottom ash and slags, are produced each year due to coal combustion in thermal power plants. These products consist of mainly unburned carbon and inorganic compound (such as: silica, alumina, iron oxides, magnesium oxide, phosphorus oxide etc.). These are valuable minerals and can be recycled or recovered if properly processed. One third of the material find application as an ingredient in cement and other construction products, the rest is held in dams or similar dumps, which results in a hazardous impact on the environment, polluting soil and ground water. The unproductive use of land, the associated long term financial burden maintenance and negative environmental impacts have led to realization that alternative uses for combustion by-products as a value added product beyond incorporation in construction materials are needed. At present, there is an intensive search to increase their uses. Other uses of coal combustion residues include as raw material in brick and ceramic tile fabrication, as filler in plastics and paints, extraction of valuable mineral materials, production of zeolites and soil and mine waste treatments. Separation of unburned carbon from bottom ashes by means of flotation was conducted in order to increase the possibility of the recycling of coal combustion wastes. In the flotation experiments collector, dispersant and frother amount, pulp density and pH were tested as variables. After first stage flotation experiments, at optimum conditions, the carbon content was reduced down to 5.58 % in the tailings fraction. This fraction meets the industrial specifications and can be utilized as a cement additive. At the same conditions the carbon content of the concentrate increased to 44.72 % at a carbon recovery of 65.81 %. After the cleaner stage flotation experiment the carbon content of the product is enhanced to 62.53 %. This fraction can be blended back into the coal feed to the power plant boilers.

Jan 1, 2014

By K. Bru, D. B. Parvaz

"Electric pulse fragmentation (EPF) is an innovative technology that uses high-voltage pulsed power (HVPP) for the selective comminution of the treated material. Highly energetic electrical pulses are used to fracture rocks at mineral grain boundaries, resulting in extensive micro-cracks and/or complete fragmentation of the processed particles depending on the applied energy. In this study, the EPF technology was applied to a low-grade schist ore containing cassiterite, in order to investigate its influence on the selectivity of the fragmentation. The impact of EPF on subsequent comminution steps was studied by combining either the EPF technology or jaw crushing (used here as conventional crushing) with subsequent impact crushing. The results confirmed the potential of the EPF treatment for a selective fragmentation of the schist ore. This gave the potential advantages of reducing the total energy consumption in the comminution circuit and of improving the recovery of cassiterite during concentration processes. INTRODUCTION The rise in the world consumption of metals combined with the depletion of most of the high-grade ore reserves leads to an increased need to process ores of lower grade, with a more complex mineralogy. To recover the valuable minerals contained in such ores, fine grinding is required, but this process has high energy requirements and leads to the production of a large amounts of fines, which can impede the performance of later concentration processes such as gravimetric separation and flotation. Addressing this issue is a major challenge for the mining industry. Selective comminution methods have the potential to significantly contribute to the profitable exploitation of these low-grade ores by generating cracks specifically at mineral grain boundaries rather than randomly as in a conventional mechanical comminution system. This allows the liberation of valuable components from the feed material without overgrinding, i.e. this prevents unnecessary size reduction of already liberated grains, which leads to a reduction in production of fines and in energy consumption. In addition, rock not fragmented by the process are usually weakened by the dense fracture network generated, which increases grindability of the rock (Wang et al., 2011)."

Jan 1, 2018

By Rogerio C. Guimarães, Antonio E. C. Peres

The production of phosphate concentrates (phosphate rock) from slimes represents a challenge to the phosphate industry worldwide. In Brazil, this challenge is particularly relevant due to the consistently low P2O5 grades and the igneous origin. The first industrial experiences of producing phosphate rock from slimes (-44µm or -325#) fraction started at Arafertil, currently Bunge Fertilizantes SA, in Araxá, in the 1980.s. This production corresponds, nowadays, to 35% of the total production of concentrates in the company (830,000t/year) in a circuit consisting of desliming in 40mm microcyclones and concentration in flotation columns, corn starch and fatty acids being utilised as reagents. The performance of slimes flotation and the process control, at Bunge´s concentrator, were improved after the introduction of column flotation technology, in the first half of the nineties. The column flotation technology for slimes recovery was expanded to other Brazilian concentrators still in the nineties: Ultrafértil (Catalão - GO), Bunge (Cajati - SP), Fosfértil (Tapira - MG) and Copebrás (Catalão - GO). At present the Brazilian production of phosphate rock is approximately 4.5Mt/year, with a strong trend for a market increase. Genuinely Brazilian technology is utilised for the processing of slimes, the concentrates representing 11 to 13% of the overall production. The production of apatite concentrates from slimes was relevant to increase phosphate recovery and reduce costs, contributing to the growth of the fertilisers industry.

Jan 1, 2003

By E. Szelag

The adsorption and stabilization of mineral dispersed systems by using Pluronic copolymers with different molecular weights and EO content has been studied. The role of sequential adsorption of EO-PO copolymers and cationic surfactant (CTAB) on the carbonate particle properties and in determining the stability of their suspension was studied with particular attention to the conformation of the polymer at the solid-liquid interface. The purpose of this work was to investigate the flocculation phenomena, influence of polymer molecular size on stability of suspensions of magnesite and dolomite and the effect of addition mode of polymer and surfactant. The suspension stability measurements and the determination of sedimentation speed were carried out using an optical analyser (Turbiscan). In most of investigated cases, the biggest floccs and the fastest sedimentation were found for low concentrations of copolymers.

Jan 1, 2014

By Johan Nell, Paul den Hoed

"Carbochlorination tests were conducted with matched particle-size fractions of rutile, ilmenite and hightitania slag in a small bubbling fluidized-bed reactor. The effects of temperature, the type and proportion of solid reductant in the charge, and the fraction of Cl2 in the fluidizing gas were investigated. Tests confirm the need for solid carbon in the bed if chlorination is to run at high rates. With solid carbon in the bed, CO supplied with the fluidizing gas does not increase significantly the degree of chlorination after 75 minutes.When large proportions (30 wt%) of carbon are added to the charge, then the reactionTiO2 + 2C + 2Cl2 = TiCl4 + 2COis favoured overTiO2 + C + 2Cl2 = TiCl4 + CO2Ilmenite is chlorinated more quickly than titania slag, which in turn is chlorinated more quickly than rutile. Rates of chlorination at 1100°C and 1000°C are much the same and significantly higher than at 900°C. Chlorination is associated with significant increases in particle porosity (even for rutile), which is brought about by the rapid initial chlorination of FeO and MnO (in ilmenite and slag) and (it is argued) by the chlorination of Ti2O3 which forms at high-energy surface sites."

Jan 1, 2003

By Sanjeeva Latchireddi

The effective utilization of the energy in comminution devices depend on how efficiently the broken particles leave the breakage field as soon as they reach product size. In crushers the transport of broken particles smaller than CSS is done by gravity (vertical) thus allowing the energy to be applied to new particles. However, in AG/SAG mills, gravity becomes the energy field and the transport of particles is horizontal which needs a suitable discharge mechanism and has been found to have significant effect on grinding efficiency. The material transport in AG/SAG mills depend on how efficiently the discharge system (grate and pulp lifters) operates. Material transport plays a significant role on efficiency of horizontal grinding mills ? AG/SAG/Ball mills. The magnitude of benefits that can be achieved with efficient material transport in AG/SAG mills has been demonstrated in a Greenfield milling operation at Mirabela Mineração?s SantaRita Nickel operation located in northeastern part of Bahia in Brazil. This grinding circuit was commissioned in October 2009, which was designed as a typical SABC circuit to grind 4.6 mtpa (575tph) to produce a P80 of 125um with 10-12% ball charge in SAG mill. However, it has been operating as ABC circuit without any grinding media in SAG mill. The nameplate design capacity has been achieved in few days and has gradually increased to an average of +800 tph and still it is operating in ABC mode. The milling circuit commissioning resulted in small and relatively simple measures to rectify, which was reflected in the rapid commissioning of the milling circuit and it achieved the nameplate capacity within days. The Santa Rita grinding circuit consists of one 30?x 15.4? 8.5MW SAG Mill fitted with Outotec patented Turbo Pulp Lifters (TPL TM ) in close circuit with HP400 short head pebble crusher and one 20? x 28.4? 5.5MW Ball Mill in closed circuit with Warman cyclone cluster fitted with 10 x 26? CAVEX cyclones. This paper examines the comminution design process, operating philosophies, experiences, post commissioning optimization, and future development works. Evaluation of the milling circuit performance relative to the design criteria is also discussed. Keywords: Autogenous Grate (AG), Semi-Autogenous Grate (SAG, Turbo Pulp Lifter (TPL)

Sep 1, 2012