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By AIME AIME

THE annual meeting of the Auxiliary to the A. I. M. E. was marked by the most delightful cordiality and warm spirit of welcome on the part of the members of the New York Section and an equally charming spirit of cooperation and appreciation on the part of the visitors. On Monday Mrs. Ernest H. Wolfes and Mrs. Charles A. Bohn had charge of registration and most efficiently .provided everyone with the necessary tickets and badges. The reception hall and regisfration booth were gay with beautiful flowers that reflected the welcoming spirit one found there. The smooth efficiency with which the whole program ran was due largely to the tireless efforts of Mrs. Donald M. Liddell and Mrs. Louis D. Huntoon, joint chairmen of the Ladies' Committee, and Miss Margaret Callow, chairman of the Junior Committee. After registering, the ladies proceeded to- the fifth floor, where they had luncheon with the members of the A. I. M. E. On that day Mrs. W. H. Bassett and Mrs. Lucius W. Mayer were the hostesses.

Jan 1, 1929

By L. D. Mullins, E. B. Elfrink, W. L. Wahl

In the past few years several articles and papers presenting results of solution gas-drive depletion calculations have appeared in the lit-erature. Such calculations are of interest to the oil industry, for investment decisions must often be made before much is known about a reservoir. At other times, an estimate of the possible benefits to be realized from alternate production methods is desirable, and theoretical depletion calculations can serve as a floor or reference level from which to work. In any case, an estimate of ultimate oil recovery based upon engineering data is commonly required. An engineer confronted with the problem of obtaining, for a specific reservoir system, an estimate of ultimate oil recovery by solution gas-drive depletion usually will be forced to perform the calculations himself. This is despite the quantity of data in the literature. Rarely will either experience or the literature provide results from a reservoir system similar in all important respects to the one under consideration, and calculated results are not so plentiful that satisfactory interpolation procedures can be devised. Performing the calculations, however, is a tedious, time-consuming task unless an electronic computer is available, and, in practice, time and manpower are not always available for this purpose. A quick, simple, consistent method was needed for reducing the uncer- tainty in estimated oil recovery from solution gas-drive reservoirs when only minimum information about the reservoir system is available. PROCEDURE Method of Calculation The usual requisite assumptions were made so that the material balance equation could be used to calculate data for the charts. The following assumptions were made: (1) the reservoir is homogeneous and isotropic; (2) oil recovery is due entirely to solution gas drive and neither a gas cap nor a water drive nor gravity drainage is present; (3) the initial reservoir pressure is the bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluid; (4) initial total liquid saturation is 100 per cent of pore space; (5) interstitial water saturation remains at the initial value as the reservoir pressure declines from the bubble-point pressure to atmospheric pressure; (6) equilibrium gas saturation is 5 per cent of pore space; and (7) oil and gas saturations are uniformly distributed throughout the reservoir at all times. There are no saturation gradients due to a wellbore, nor is the geometry of the reservoir system considered. The material balance equation was written in the form of a differential equation' which was integrated to determine the change in oil saturation for an assigned pressure drop. Formal integration was not possible, so recourse was made to the Runge-Kutta method' of numerical integration. All computations were performed on IBM equipment. Numerical integration yielded the change in oil saturation within the reservoir as the pressure. declined from the bubble-point pressure to atmospheric pressure. The initial oil saturation minus the change in oil saturation yielded the oil saturation at atmospheric pressure. The oil originally in place was obtained by dividing the initial oil saturation by the initial formation volume factor (differential liberation) while the oil in place at atmospheric pressure was obtained by dividing the final oil saturation by the formation volume factor at atmospheric pressure. U1timate oil recovery, expressed as a percentage of the initial oil in place, was obtained by dividing the difference between the oil initially in place and the oil in place at atmospheric pressure by the oil initially in place and multiplying by 100. PVT Data Charts were based upon 135 solutions to the material balance equation. PVT properties of the reservoir fluids were variables in this equation and had to be known as functions of pressure. The required PVT data might have been obtained from either actual reservoir fluid systems or correlated data. However, correlated PVT data were developed and employed in the calculations for the following reasons: (1) it is doubtful that 135 sets of PVT data could have been obtained for the values of variables investigated in this study, and (2) results of recovery calculations from randomly obtained PVT data could not be correlated as well as rssults from selected PVT data. The PVT data used to develop the

By James D. Reilly

13.1-1. Introduction. COAL RESERVES OF THE UNITED STATES. Bituminous coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in America. With reserves of 1,660 billion tons and assumed recovery of 5070, there is more than 830 billion tons of recoverable coal--enough to assure ample supplies of energy for centuries. Looking at Fig. 13.1-1, coal is found in a majority of the states, including [ ]

Jan 1, 1968

By L. B. Underwood, C. J. Distefano

NORAD, when completed, will be housed in large chambers excavated out of the granite beneath the Cheyenne Mountain near Colorado Springs. A room and pillar layout for the chamber excavation was selected and executed. Many complex problems arose in designing a rock bolt system; this paper includes discussions on: rock strengthening following excavation, excavation and ground support problems, orienting rock bolts with respect to jointing systems, conducting pull tests, four-way chamber intersection problems, the need for grouting rock bolts, and loss of tension and permanency of anchorage in a rock bolt system. In the event of a sudden nuclear attack upon the United States, it is imperative that vital command and control centers have a high probability of survival. One such vital facility is the North American Air Defense Command Combat Operations Center at Colorado Springs, Colo. Known briefly as NORAD, this installation when completed will be housed in large chambers excavated out of granite beneath the eastern slope of Cheyenne Mountain (Fig. 1). The NORAD COC, a U.S. Air Force sponsored project, will serve as the primary collection and evaluation center for data concerning unknown aircraft, missiles, or space vehicles, which might bring destruction to North America. The data will be fed into high-speed computers and electronic equipment from outpost sources: radar, ballistic missile early warning stations and picket ships throughout the world. Electronically controlled display boards will make it possible to evaluate the tracking data instantaneously and to take appropriate defensive action.'

Jan 1, 1968

The beginning of Colorado's mining industry is linked on one side with that of the Appalachian districts and on the other side with that of California, because the first discoveries were made by pioneers when on their way from Georgia to California. In the summer of 1849 a party of seven Georgians were taking a herd of thoroughbred horses across the continent to the Pacific coast. They reached Camp Lyon, on the Arkansas river, in October, and, meeting James Dempsey, a Government guide, they were persuaded by him that it was too late to cross the mountains that season. His advice was accepted, and, moving northward, they established a winter camp at the junction of Cherry creek with the Platte, close to the site of the city of Denver. Upon a sand-bar, lining the south side of the river, they built two cabins. During the closing months of 1849 they prospected the alluvial banks of Cherry creek, but they made no attempt to penetrate into the mountain canyons, near them, westward, for fear of the Indians.* They found gold in several places along Cherry creek, and particularly at a spot 16 miles up the stream from their camp. From the feathers of the wild geese that they shot they obtained quills in which they placed their gold-dust. This party of Georgians consisted of Dr. L. J. Russell and his brother, Green Russell, also A. T. Lloyd, G. W. Kiker, and P. H. Clark. Early in 1850 they crossed the main range of the Rocky Mountains by the Bridger pass and went on to California. They mined near Downieville, and were successful. Occasionally mention was made by them of the gold

Jan 1, 1932

By Charles H. Grant

Some of the limiting factors relative to explosive crushing of rock and ways to overcome a few of these problems are presented. Relationships between borehole diameters, bench heights, and spacings, along with a review of the influence geometry has on energy as these are changed, are discussed. Efficiency in use of explosives and the decay of energy as it moves through rock and is absorbed and dissipated, is described, along with fragmentation as a function of spacings and energy zoning, etc. Communications are one of the major problems encountered. In an effort to provide a better understanding of the use of explosives, it is necessary to take a little different view of what explosives are, how to look at them as tools to fragment rock, and some of the problems encountered in doing so. First, take the explosive: although there are many factors involved, consider these as being reduced to only two — shock-strain imparted to the rock by the high early development of energy, and the gas effect which is a combination of heat, moles of gas formed, rate of formation of these gases which develop pressures, etc. First, consider shock energy by itself and assume there is no gas effect in the reaction. Fig. 1 illustrates a block or cube of rock, in the center of which is detonated an explosive charge which is 100% shock energy. Tensile slabbing would be seen on the surface and probably the cube of rock would generally hang together even though microcracks were formed. If the situation is reversed and an explosive whch has no shock energy and only gas effect (Fig. 2) is considered, the cube of rock would act as a pressure vessel and contain the pressure from the gas effect until it exceeded the rock-vessel strength; then the rock would break in a few large pieces. If these two kinds of energy are put together and the area of shock-strain around the explosive (Fig. 3) is considered, the two energies will be seen working together to furnish broken rock. The gas effect applies pressure to the microcracks formed from the shock energy to weaken the rock-pressure vessel and propagate these cracks to break the rock apart. It not only will be broken more finely, but will break apart at a lower pressure than the gaseffect case, since the shock energy has first weakened the rock vessel. Although tensile spalling from the shock-strain imparts momentum to the rock, the main source of displacement comes from the gas effect. The term "rock" is being used to mean any material to be blasted. These energies are absorbed by the rock in different ways. First, classify rock into two main categories: "elastic" and "plastic-acting." Elastic rock should be thought of as rock which can transmit a shock wave and is high in compressive strength, such as granite or quartzite. Since this elastic rock transmits a shock wave well, it makes good use of the shock energy from the explosive-forming cracks, etc., for the gas effect to work on. Plastic-acting rocks are rock masses which are relatively low in compressive strength and absorb shock energy at a much faster rate, thereby making poor use of the shock energy by not developing as extensive a cracked zone for the gas effect to work on. Rocks of this type are generally softer materials such as some limestones, sandstones, and porphyries. For the most part, the shockenergy part of the explosive reaction is wasted in plastic-acting rock, leaving most of the work to the gas effect. Since the ratio of gas effect to shock energy is different in different explosives, it is easy to understand why some explosives perform well in elastic rock and poorly in plastic-acting rock, and vice versa. Some of the most difficult blasting situations arise when mixtures of plastic-acting and elastic rock are encountered (Fig. 4). Fig. 4 shows an example of granite boulders cemented together with something like a decomposed quartz monzonite which is plastic-acting. The elastic granite boulders will transmit the shock-strain within itself, but when this shock tries to move through the monzonite to the next boulder, its intensity is absorbed by the monzonite and little shock-strain is placed on the adjoining boulder. In addition to this loss by absorbtion, shock reflection at the surface of the boulder will effect tensile spalling. The net effect is poor breakage of the boulders which do not have drillholes in them as they simply will be popped out with the muck. The same is true (Fig. 5) when layers and joints make

Jan 1, 1970

By Bradley Stoughton

FRom 1886 to 1889, approximately, Henry M. Howe was engaged most actively in preparing his Afetallugy of Sieei, which became the foundation for his leadership in the science of physical metallurgy of steel. During the same period, Hadfield was developing the first of the industrially-important alloy steels, and Riley was initiating the commercialization of nickel steel. Both of these alloys are treated briefly in Howe's book; indeed, he missed practically nothing of interest in all the steel literature preceding 1889. There had been many good books on steel before his, but none of the same character. His genius, like that of Aristotle and Francis Bacon, manifested itself in the painstaking collection of data, followed by their coordination and interpretation. Not only manganese and nickel steels were discussed, but several which most of us, with our tendency to overlook the past, are wont to regard as exclusively recent developments, such as: silicon, chrome, copper, tungsten, vanadium, titanium, chrome-tungsten and many other steels. But Howe never devoted much special attention, in his writings, to alloy steels; the science of the relations of iron and carbon offered field enough even for his capacity for constructive thought. And, today we find the science of alloy steels in much the same condition as was the metallurgy of steel before Howe wrote his first great book. Many, many important facts have been presented to the world, especially by Sir Robert Hadfield, James Riley, Henri le Chatelier, Kotaro Honda and his associates, Maunsel White, Harry Brearley, and a host of others. Several books have been devoted wholly or chiefly to alloy steels, such as those by Hibbard, Mars, Heyn and Wetzell, Grube, Burnham, Gillett and Mack, Billón, Brearley, Monypenny, Becker, Savoia, Sauveur, Guillet, Tammann, Guertler, Goerens, Guia, Wuest, Ledebur, Schenck, Aitchison, Osann, Guettier, Buchetti, Escard. The vast number of data on the subject are indicated by a bibliography' which was collected in preparing this address. It covers the years 1911 to

Jan 1, 1927

By Paul F. Kerr

Uranium mineralization occurs in the footwall of the Sunshine vein from the 2900 to the 3700 level. Veinlets of uraninite associated with pyrite and jasper have been so extensively divided and recemented that units more than a few feet in length are seldom observed. The wall rock is St. Regis quartzite of the Belt series. The age of the uraninite, on the basis of isotopic analyses, is 750 t- 50, which agrees with geological data suggesting that phases of the Sunshine mineralization are pre-Cambrian.

Jan 5, 1953

By G. L. Oldright, F. S. Wartman, H. E. Keyes

The economic manufacture of sulfuric acid by the ordinary chamber process usually involves production on a large scale and a plant that is costly to construct. The nature of sulfuric acid makes it costly to transport any great distance. For these reasons, the metallurgist has not found it feasible, at times, to beneficiate ores amenable to leaching, and a need exists for a local process that will produce acid cheaply on a small or large scale. To leach ores containing residual sulfides, an oxidizer, such as ferric sulfate, is needed in solution. Precipitation with scrap iron is one of the cheapest methods of removing some metals from solution, giving a plant of low first cost and supplying a source of cheap ferrous sulfate. The other ingredient needed for the process is SO2 roaster gas, the addition of which, as described below, will give both ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid. Where roaster gas is a waste or obnoxious product, the expense for materials is still further lessened. The use of ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid as a solvent lends itself well to the utilization of scrap iron as a precipitant, and the stages of the process fit in well together as an economic whole. Applications The hydrometallurgist usually thinks of ferric sulfate as a partial solvent for some of the sulfides of copper alone, as most work has been done on this metal. The processes of Hannay and Christensen, for leaching unroasted galena with ferric chloride made by anodic oxidation, show the added solvent action given by "ic" salts when added to brine solutions. It was found by R. D. Bradford (in some work to be published soon by the University of Utah) that, by the addition of a ferric salt to a brine solution, the silver as well as the lead in an unroasted semi-oxidized ore could be largely dissolved. The "ic" salt in the case of silver has evidently the same effect as the case of cupric sulfate when

Jan 1, 1926

By Y. C. Liu, G. A. Alers

Using X-ray pole-figure information and the single-crystal elastic constants, the angular variation of an elastic modulus in a polycrystal can be calculated and compared to measured clalues. This procedure has been used in the past to provide supporting ecidence for a particular choice of ideal orientations in the description o the X-ray pole figure. Since it is well-known that the absolute value oj an elastic modlus oj a poly crystal cannot be acczrralely calculated from the single-crystal elastic constants, there exists a serious question about the reliability oj this modulus method in the study of textures. This paper deriz-es sez3eral simple fornzulae for the ntzgular lariatiion of Young's modulus in the plane o a rolled sheet sing the same ssuinptions which lead to the lack oj detinztion of the absolute c'alre OJ the elastic ,nodulus. The vesults show that, although the absolute isallre oj Young's modulus depends strongly on the assumptions made, the shape of the modulus vs angle curve is not very sensitive to the assumptions and thus can be used reliably in texture studies. Exatzples oj' using this criteriotz are illustrated in the text. NeARLY all poly crystalline materials have some preferred orientation in the arrangement of their grains and hence exhibit anisotropy in their properties. This preferred orientation is usually measured and studied by X-rays which yield detailed information on the statistical distribution of grain orientations in the form of pole figures. The usefulness of these pole figures in theories of texture formation and in predictions of properties has come to depend almost entirely on the characterization of the pole figure by one or more ideal orientations. Unfortunately, this characterization is not unique and different authors often present different ideal orientations to characterize a given pole figure. In order to distinguish between these different choices of ideal orientations, it is necessary to go beyond X-rays and consider other physical properties which reflect the texture' simply because any choice of ideal orientations must predict correctly the observed anisotropy in all physical properties. The most common example of this procedure has made use of the angular variation of Young's modulus with respect to the rolling direction in the plane of a rolled sheet.3 4 Here the anisotropy can be measured easily and it can also be calculated from the single-crystal elastic constants and the chosen ideal orientation. Unfortunately the methods used to calculate this anisotropy were chosen for their simplicity rather than for their mathematical rigor so that there exists a serious question as to the validity of conclusions reached by this modulus method. It is well-known5 that the absolute value of the Young's modulus of a polycrystalline aggregate cannot be calculated very accurately because different mathematical averages over the grains yield different results. It is one purpose of this paper to examine the effect of different averaging procedures on the calculated anisotropy of Young's modulus in the rolling plane of rolled sheets in order to see if this property can be used reliably in texture studies. This particular modulus and type of material were chosen because the modulus is easily measured and rolled sheet is technologically important. The results show that, although different averages yield different absolute values for Young's modulus, the shape of the modulus vs angle curve is not very sensitive to the averaging procedure and thus can be used as a criterion to check the various ideal orientations used to characterize the X-ray pole figure. Examples of this checking procedure are given in the final section. Another purpose of this paper is to examine the possibility of using the anisotropy of Young's modulus as an indicator of texture without reference to pole figures or ideal orientations. Such a use would require that different textures yield quite different shapes for the modulus vs angle curve so that the distinction between textures would be quite clear. The experimental results presented in the final section indicate that there is easily enough variation in shapes to allow modulus measurements to be useful texture indicators, par-

Jan 1, 1967

By R. S. Archer

THE PROPER representation of equilibria involving graphitic carbon in the constitutional diagram of the iron-carbon system is admittedly an unsolved problem. The complete solution of the problem will probably require the establishment of more experimental evidence than is at this time available. The object of this paper is to present the author's observations on some of the phenomena in question and his interpretation of this and other recorded evidence. The chief of the recently disputed questions upon which the author has experimental evidence concerns the occurrence of graphitization at temperatures below the A1 point. In a paper1 presented at the September, 1919, meeting of this Institute, the following is found: "the results given would seem to indicate that the graphite eutectoid lies at a smaller value of carbon content than has been previously supposed. At least this is true unless there is either a marked formation of graphite eutectoid at these rates of cooling, or a decomposition of pearlite into graphite, both rather unlikely suppositions, but not impossible ones." In a discussion of this paper, H. A. Schwartz2 takes the position that the possibility of graphitization occurring below the A 1 point is an open question, but that complete graphitization (to less than 0.10 per cent. combined carbon) commonly occurs above this temperature. Another opinion from the malleable castings industry is found in a recent paper3 by Touceda: "Also the carbide of iron can be broken up into its two soft constituents at the temperature referred to. This temperature is called the critical temperature, or critical range, and for air-furnace hard-iron castings it is in the vicinity of 1440° F. It is the

Jan 2, 1920

By H. E. Lee, P. C. Feddersen

Greenockite is the only known cadmium mineral of importance. It occurs rather universally, in minor concentrations, as a secondary mineral in sphalerite deposits. The world's cadmium output is obtained through the processing of metallurgical by-products, largely from the treatment of residues from electrolytic zinc, retort zinc and lithopone plants. These sources are supplemented by the processing of fumes from lead and copper smelting operations. The development of modern selective flotation practice in the decade 1920-1930, which permitted the economical mining of complex lead-zinc ores, resulted in significant increases in the quantities of cadmium entering lead smelting systems. Being closely related to zinc as to occurrence, properties and production, most detailed description of cadmium recovery methods are to be found recorded in connection with zinc metallurgy. Other than occasional articles pertaining to particular operational procedures, literature offers but little in the nature of a balanced survey of lead smelter cadmium recovery practices. While many of the basic operations described for the recovery of cadmium from zinc by-products are applicable to the treatment of lead plant products, the inherent problems involved differ widely. In general the cadmium content of related by-products from routine lead smelting operations is present in lower concentrations, exists in a less soluble state and is associated with both a greater quantity and a greater variety of detrimental impurities. To cope with these problems, lead smelter practices are found to follow the general outline: Preparatory Processing 1. Concentration operations 2. Sulphation operations Cadmium Plant Processing 1. Leaching operations 2. Purification operations 3. Sponge precipitation operations 4. Metal recovery operations 5. Refining and casting operations As in the case of related zinc plant operations, cadmium recovery practices at lead smelters are not standardized. They not only vary as to type, but also extent. Depending upon prevailing conditions, lead smelter cadmium operations range from simple concentration campaigns, for the purpose of sufficiently "up-grading" products for shipment elsewhere, to complete processing steps for the production of refined metal. Preparatory Processing The cadmium content of lead smelter receipts is low and, as a rule, proportionate to the zinc content; the usual range of cadmium contained being of the order of 0.01-0.05 pct. Were it not for the low boiling point of cadmium, such small concentrations would, no doubt, be lost in the large tonnages of slag, metal and other smelter end products. However, the ready volatility of cadmium and its compounds at prevailing lead smelting temperatures results in its concentration in fractional portions of fume collected. This collected fume comprises a circulating load within the smelter system. Thus, the cadmium content of blast furnace fume* increases with each successive circulation until an equilibrium value is reached when the sum of the cadmium losses, due to handling and in slag, waste gases and other end products, becomes equal to the intake as ore. With ore receipts averaging, say 0.03 pct cadmium, the concentration value obtainable, through fume circulation in a routine manner, approaches 10-12 pct. In such operations, cadmium concentrations in blast furnace fume of from 3-5 pct are readily .attainable. However, the concentration gain beyond this range, with each additional circulation, is progressively decreased as a result of mounting losses occurring through handling and in end products. Therefore, to avoid excessive cadmium loss and to enhance the ultimate concentration anttainable, it is customary practice to isolate blast furnace fume at some intermediate cadmium content for special concentration procedure. The most common type cadmium concentration "campaign" involves special smelting operations wherein a relatively high portion of blast furnace fume at 3—6 pct cadmium is incorporated into the sinter charge. This type practice is roughly illustrated by the diagram on p. 111. Cadmium fume collected from lead blast furnace operations is not amen-

Jan 1, 1950

By C. A. Heiland

For a long time it has been known that it is possible to deduce conclusions about the physical constitution of the interior of the earth from the records of natural earthquakes obtained by stationary seismographs. In view of this fact it is surprising how late, relatively speaking, geologic prospecting by seismic methods has been taken up, although the first suggestion was made 40 years ago- that travel-time curves of artificial explosions might be used for the study of the change of the velocity of seismic waves as depth. Further suggestions of practical applications of artificial explosions for geologic purposes were made by Belar,2 by von dem Borne,3 by Benndorf4 and by Galitzin,5 but it was not until 1919 that Mintrop obtained. a patent on the seismic prospecting method which he has applied commercially on a large scale ever since. Dr. Mintrop came to this country with his method at about 1923. Since that time, several. American oil companies have developed seismographs of the mechanical type for the vertical component similar to that of Mintrop's (Humble Oil Co., Dr. Ricker). Other consulting geophysical companies designed other types of seismic devices, the simplest of them for the recording of the first impulse being the geophone (McCollum Geophone Co.). The galvanometric recording method as first proposed by Galitzin is being used (Geophysical Research Corpn.?) and use is being made even of the piezoelectric properties of crystals for portable seismographs (F. Rieber).. There is such an enormous variety of all kinds of portable seismographs, vibrographs, accelerographs, etc., that it is difficult to decide just what kind is preferable. Unfortunately, nothing has been published as yet about American designs of portable seismographs, except the Wood Anderson torsion-seismometer. After Mintrop's design of portable seismographs, other constructions were made.

Jan 1, 1928

By E. R. Borcherdt

IT is notable that the first large-scale mine operation equipped entirely with detachable bits was the Badger State mine of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. in Butte, Montana, just 30 years ago. This mine in 1922 was producing approximately 1200 tons of ore per day. Much of the data presented in C. L. Berrien's article1 describing the development and installation of the Hawkesworth detachable drill bit were obtained from these operations. As in any pioneering effort, no precedent existed and many difficult problems required solution, so that the changeover to detachable bits at all Butte hill mines was not completed for 6 years. There was widespread disbelief as to the probable efficiency of the new installation.

Jan 2, 1953

By K. A. Johnson, H. F. Yancey

Physical properties have been used for a long time in characterizing different kinds of coal, and such physical properties as friability and slacking have been included along with chemical properties in grouping coals according to the widely used system of classification adopted by the U. S. Geological Survey. Nevertheless, the usefulness of physical properties for classifying the different ranks or kinds of coal has been limited because it has not been possible to express these properties in definite form as numerical values. Because of the present wide interest in the formulation and adoption of a satisfactory system of coal classification, the Northwest Experiment Station of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the College of Mines of the University of Washington, has recently completed a study of the physical and chemical properties of approximately 100 different coals ranging in rank from lignite to anthracite. Purpose and Scope For this investigation samples were collected in approximately 45 mines and prospects in Washington and 23 mines in other states. The following studies, in addition to proximate and ultimate analyses, were made of the samples: Determination of (1) friability, (2) slacking or weathering characteristics, (3) yield of products by low-temperature carbonization in a laboratory retort, and (4) agglutinating value. Most of the coals examined were subjected to each of the tests enumerated, but with coal of some ranks this was unnecessary in some instances, and in others it was not feasible to do the work involved. A report which includes the analyses of the coals and the details of the methods of examination used in the investigation is being published by the Bureau of Mines.' It is the purpose of the present report to show the results of the friability, slacking, low-temperature and agglu-

Jan 1, 1932

By R. T. Torgerson, W. A. Baginski

Alloying studies were conducted on modifications of Cb-10W-1OHf (C-129) alloy as part of a cooperative alloy development effort between The Boeing Co. and the Wah Chang Corp. The purpose of these studies was to develop a fabricable, high- strength columbium alloy with superior melding properties. The initial investigations of alloy modifications were conducted using laboratory-melted button ingots. An alloy with the composition exhibited excellent veld ductility, elevated-ternpevature strength, and fabricability. The yttrium-modified alloy was desigrzated C-129Y and was selected for further developrnetzt. Three prodziction heats of C-129Y weve processed into sheet. Welding, forming, and tensile proper-lies are presented for this material. Tungsten-are welds of. C-129Y exhibited a minimum bend radius of 1/2T in the as-welded conditioti compared to 8T for C-129 alloy. An investigation was conducted on Disil coating of C-129Y and test data are presented on oxidation resistance and effects of re-entry environments. The excellent combination of strength, fabricability, weldability, and low transition temperature of C-129Y alloy offers potential design advantages for use of this alloy in structures of aerospace vehicles. It is atiticipated that C-129Y will rapidly supplant C-129 and similar alloys clue to the versatility provided by its impvoved welditzg properties. COLUMBIUM alloys with improved properties are required to achieve better performance and efficiency of radiation-cooled structures for re-entry vehicles and recoverable launch systems. Cooperative work by The Boeing Co. and the Wah Chang Corp. resulted in the development several years ago of C-129 alloy, a high-strength Cb-W-Hf alloy.' This alloy has received favorable consideration for many advanced designs of high-temperature structures due to its excellent combination of properties. However, this alloy exhibits low weld ductility unless given a high-temperature stress-relief treatment. For this reason the development effort was directed towards modification of the C-129 alloy composition (Cb-1OW-1OHf) to eliminate the need for post-weld heat treatment. This paper describes the successful development of an alloy meeting this requirement. This new alloy was designated C-129Y and has a nominal composition of EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Alloying Studies. Various Cb-W-Hf compositions were investigated using are-melted button ingots. These buttons were hot-forged using a protective glass coating and rolled into sheet specimens. Metal-lographic examination: tensile testing, and welding studies were conducted to evaluate properties of the experimental alloys. Sheet Fabrication. Three pilot production heats of C-129Y were fabricated into sheet to establish processing techniques and to determine sheet properties. The three heats consisted of 6-in.-diam ingots weighing from 140 to 250 lb. The ingots were prepared by electron-be am melting followed by vacuum-arc melting. The hafnium and yttrium additions were made during the are-melting operation by tack welding alloy strip additions to the Cb-W master-alloy electrode. The final ingots were machined into billets with samples of the machine turnings collected for chemical analysis. Ingot breakdown methods for the three heats are as follows: Ingot Ingot Heat Size Weiaht___Breakdown Method A 6 in. 250 lb Hot extrusion B 6 in. 140 lb Hot forging C 6 in. 250 lb Hot extrusion Sheet bars from the extrusion and forging operations were conditioned, recrystallized, and rolled into sheet. Initial rolling was conducted at elevated temperatures and final rolling was conducted at room temperature.

Jan 1, 1967

By F. F. Poland

The purpose of this paper is to describe a new process for the refining of secondary copper-base metals and a specially designed high-temperature electric-resistor furnace used in the process for the distillation of zinc from these metals. The process was used for the conversion of nickel silver to cupronickel and to recover the zinc content in metallic form. It also proved applicable and economical for the treatment of scrap brass for separating and reclaiming the copper and zinc. The relatively large furnace developed for the distillation of zinc is described in detail, for it made economically possiblc the direct recovery of metallic zinc from scrap brass, which is a new step in the processing of such material. Considerable interest has been shown in the utilization of the distillation furnace for other metallurgical processes, where it is of advantage to operate in a controlled neutral or reducing atmosphere, or to avoid having the processed metal in contact with refractories other than carbon, or to operate at temperatures between 3000 and 4000°F. Purpose of Development It was recognized early in the war effort that nickel would become a critical metal. therefore all nickel stock and alloys containing relatively high percentages of nickel were frozen immediately. Among these alloys were considerable quantities of various grades of nickel silver, an alloy containing copper, nickel, zinc, and in some grades lead, also minor amounts of iron, manganese and other constituents. At the time there was no existing plant or process to eliminate the zinc, lead, and minor constituents so as to convert this metal to cupronickel, one of the important alloys needed by the U. S. Navy for condenser parts. Therefore the Bureau of Industrial Conservation of the War Production Board requested the executives of the leading nonferrous metal companies to have their metallurgical staffs study the problem of converting this metal to cupronickel conforming to U. S. Navy Specification 44T40. The composition specified therein is as follows: nickel, 29 to 32 per cent; zinc, 1.00; iron, 0.00 to 0.60; lead, 0.05; tin, 1.20; manganese, 0.00 to 1.00; total of other elemcnts (maximum). 0.50; copper, remainder. The problem in converting these alloys to cupronickel was the elimination of zinc, lead, iron, manganese, and other elements without appreciable loss of nickel to slags or other by-products. Revere Copper and Brass Incorporated, through its Research and Development Department, undertook to solve this problem. A Government-owned plant was built at Rome, N. Y., and there the conversion was made successfully.

Jan 1, 1949

By J. J. Jakosky

A REVIEW of the progress in applied geophysics during the recent depression years reveals marked advances over the methods employed several years ago. Of late, geophysical work has been curtailed to a Con-siderable extent in the fields of oil and base-metal exploration, its especial domains a few years ago. Greater attention has been directed toward the use of geophysical technique in other engineering problems. Constantly maintained research programs have developed new instruments and per-fected better field, laboratory and interpretation techniques based on experience and skill acquired from years of application in the older geophysical field. During the past two years, geophysical methods have been employed in problems that required information on thickness of fill materials and subsurface bedrock contours. Considerable success has been attained, with subsequent drilling checking the predicted depths within one to five per cent. In general, these problems were similar as far as the fundamen-tal physical and geological conditions were concerned, but they have varied widely in specific detail and in engineering aspects. Character-istic of the different problems are: (1) yardage and bedrock profile in gold-placer mining; (2) water supply, involving underground drainage and storage conditions; (3) bedrock contours in dam-site and other structural investigations; (4) gravel and fill yardage, and other structural features along rights of way and in rock and gravel quarrying. Of particular interest, perhaps, to mining men are the problems of gold placer deposits and water supply. Geophysical work on gold placers is of especial interest because of the present expanded activity in all phases of gold mining. The development of a suitable water supply at an economical cost is often of prime importance in insuring a successful mining venture. Particularly is this true in the arid Southwest. How-ever, the use of geophysical work in water supply is not confined to the needs of mining development.

Jan 1, 1933

By B. H. Sage, W. N. Lacey

An apparatus is described for the measurement of the pressure-volume-temperature relations of pure substances, simple mixtures and complex mixtures with an over-all absolute uncertainty, which is usually not more than 0.2 per cent. The equipment is suitable for studies in the gaseous, two-phase, and liquid regions. The behavior of such systems may be investigated at pressures as high as 10,000 lb. per sq. in. for temperatures between 70 and 600 F. The methods of measurement and the construction of the apparatus are described in some detail. The measurement of the volumetric behavior of multicomponent systems requires the simultaneous measurement of the pressure, volume, temperature and weight of each component of the system. In the present apparatus a sample having constant weight is investigated at a number of independently controlled pressures and temperatures, therefore it is necessary only to establish the weight of each component added before a given set of measurements. This method is in distinction to that in which the total volume remains constant and the pressure is varied by addition or removal of material, the system having variable weight. An objective in the design of the apparatus to be described was to develop equipment that would yield results involving no uncertainties larger than 0.25 per cent throughout the range of pressures from 150 to 10,000 Ib. per sq. in. at temperatures between 70" and 600" F. Although this over-all absolute uncertainty of measurement may not appear to be small, it necessitated care in the plans for control and measurement of each of the fundamental variables. In general, any uncertainty greater than 0.05 per cent in the pressure, volume, absolute temperature or weight of each component was considered undesirable; therefore the attempt was made to obtain a precision of measurement in each case such that the absolute uncertainty would be only half this amount except in certain regions near the ends of the experimental range of the variable under consideration.

Jan 1, 1940

By W. N. Lacey, B. H. Sage

An apparatus is described for the measurement of the pressure-volume-temperature relations of pure substances, simple mixtures and complex mixtures with an over-all absolute uncertainty, which is usually not more than 0.2 per cent. The equipment is suitable for studies in the gaseous, two-phase, and liquid regions. The behavior of such systems may be investigated at pressures as high as 10,000 lb. per sq. in. for temperatures between 70 and 600 F. The methods of measurement and the construction of the apparatus are described in some detail. The measurement of the volumetric behavior of multicomponent systems requires the simultaneous measurement of the pressure, volume, temperature and weight of each component of the system. In the present apparatus a sample having constant weight is investigated at a number of independently controlled pressures and temperatures, therefore it is necessary only to establish the weight of each component added before a given set of measurements. This method is in distinction to that in which the total volume remains constant and the pressure is varied by addition or removal of material, the system having variable weight. An objective in the design of the apparatus to be described was to develop equipment that would yield results involving no uncertainties larger than 0.25 per cent throughout the range of pressures from 150 to 10,000 Ib. per sq. in. at temperatures between 70" and 600" F. Although this over-all absolute uncertainty of measurement may not appear to be small, it necessitated care in the plans for control and measurement of each of the fundamental variables. In general, any uncertainty greater than 0.05 per cent in the pressure, volume, absolute temperature or weight of each component was considered undesirable; therefore the attempt was made to obtain a precision of measurement in each case such that the absolute uncertainty would be only half this amount except in certain regions near the ends of the experimental range of the variable under consideration.

Jan 1, 1940