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By S. E. Bretherton

This title introduces the subject I wish to describe to my fellow members, very few of whom, I 'hope, have ever had as much trouble with the smelting of ore containing much zinc, either in the lead blast furnace or the matting furnace, as circumstances have forced upon me: First, for several years in Leadville, Colo., after the sulphide ores containing zinc had been developed with greater depth and were sold to the intereats with which I was connected for smelt-ing in the blast furnace for the recovery of the lead, silver, and gold; then, in New Mexico and Arizona, where the principal source of ore supply for our custom smelter was from miners who sent most of their product in the form of concentrates, which we briquetted and smelted in the blast furnace, producing a matte containing copper, silver, and gold, for which we were paid; together with some zinc and lead, which was penalized if in excess of a maximum base set by the refinery to which we sold our copper matte; last, but not least, my experience in Shasta county, Gal., where for the sake of recovering $13 per ton value in copper, silver, and gold, I have smelted ore containing as high as 40 per cent. zinc (the last 18,951 tons smelted averaged 15 3/10 per cent. zinc) which we not only lost, but which it cost us money to lose. After such an experience, and knowing that, instead of being worth only $13 per ton, such 15 per cent. zinc ore should be worth about $30, including zinc at the present market value, the question of recovering the zinc in a profitable manner from such ore became very interesting to me. During several years' time I sent samples, of from 5 to 1,200 lb. each, to be tested by the different best-known zinc-recovery plants, and experimented with several processes proposed by others for the treatment of such ore, with but little encouragement, until I

Jan 1, 1914

By F. C. Langenberg, J. Chipman

Jan 1, 1959

By Herbert Kynor

BY THE term mechanical mining is meant that operation, or series of operations, that replace the hand methods of mining. The first undercutting machine to operate in anthracite was placed in the Butler mine of the Hillside Coal & Iron Co., Dec. 23, 1910, by the Sullivan Machinery Co. The first Jackhamer used in the anthracite field was installed at the Wadesville colliery of the Philadelphia & Reading Coal & Iron Co. in Oct., 1912, by the Ingersoll-Rand Co. The first longwall conveyor was installed at the Dodge mines of the Delaware, Lackawanna, & Western Coal Co. in March, 1912. The first mechanical scraper equipment was installed in the Seneca mines of the Lehigh Valley Coal Co. in January, 1914. The amount of anthracite mechanically mined since the first mining machine was installed in 1910a is as follows: PENNA. COAL Co. D. L. & W., SCRANTON TEMPLE HUDSON YEAR AND HILL- TONS COAL Co., COAL CO., COAL CO., TOTAL. SIDE COAL TONS TONS TONS TONS AND IRON, TONS 1920 372,737b 367,000d 322,892 74,127 371,878 1,508,634 1919 950,786 no record 306,616 81,575 319,356 1,658,333c 1918 917,778 744,966 24,880 44,756 288,781 2,021,161 1917 757,940 838,800 5,050 57,279 164,180 1,823,249 1916 286,780 860,663 13,960 114,173 101,475 1,377,051 1915 428,819 592,169 8,253 1,029,241 1914 219,188 153,896 373,084 1913 171,505 171,505 1912 124,267 124,267 1911 40,319 40,319 1910 1,184 1,184 a. A slightly greater production than shown was obtained as the tonnage from individual operations is not shown. b. Decrease due to strike conditions in 1920. c. Does not include tonnage of D., L., & W. d. D., L., & W. decrease in 1920 due to having less mining machines in operation. There are about 150 undercutters in use in the anthracite region, 80 mechanical loaders, and 10 longwall conveyors.

Jan 9, 1921

By Pervez Patel, Martin G. Frohberg, Demetrios Papamantellos

Model experiments were carried out on the mass transfer of iodine between n-hexane and a 4 2 X 10-3 M aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. The influence of mechanical stirring by means of small gas bubbles (ca. 0.01 ml in volume) on mass transfer was examined in independent experiments. The results were described with the help of the penetration theory and in the case of bubble stirring with the help of a mathematical model based on this theory. S LAG-METAL reactions, especially those in steel-making processes, often occur under conditions where gas is evolved in the form of bubbles that break through the slag-metal interface. It is known that stirring by means of bubbles increases the mass transfer coefficient, but there has been very little quantitative work done in this field. Because of the difficulties that attach to experimental work at high temperatures this study was confined to model experiments at room temperature. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS The transport of iodine from an n-hexane layer into a weak sodium hydroxide solution was studied a) with stirring by means of bubbles and b) with mechanical stirring. The apparatus for the experiments with bubbles consisted of the cell, two Dreschel bottles filled with hexane in order to saturate the nitrogen flow, one flow meter, and a nitrogen gas cylinder fitted with a fine-regulating valve. Fig. 1 shows the cell consisting of a glass cylinder 33 cm in height with an overall diameter of 7.5 cm embedded in a copper flange. The flange is connected to a Plexiglas plate and to the gas inlet. The Plexiglas plate has holes of 0.2 mm diam bored into it which are spaced 1 cm from each other. For the experiments with mechanical stirring the bottom of the cell was sealed off by a Plexiglas plate. The upper layer was stirred by means of a glass stir-rer and the bottom layer with the help of a magnetic stirrer in a counter rotatory direction. Both stirrer speeds could be varied continuously. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Iodine dissolves in n-hexane producing a stable violet color thus enabling the iodine concentration in

Jan 1, 1970

By C. Dinis da Gama

Because of the growing importance of back analysis for the interpretation of rock slope failures, particularly in open pit mines, it is suggested a methodologic sequence of activities for dealing with those problems. The principal mathematical tools for the interpretation of the most common mechanisms of slope failures are reviewed, including methods of stress and strain analysis, which seem to be more powerful for parametrization studies, and for developing more realistic explanations of slope behaviour, such as the measurement of displacements. An application of those methods is described, using slope failures detected in a Brazilian uranium mine (Cercado), thus providing reliable shearing strength parameters for the rock mass discontinuites, which were used in the final pit design. The concept of using backanalysis results to supply input data for pit design was implemented by means of the excavation of an experimental trench within mine limits, where specific instruments were installed, and several slope failures were monitored and backanalysed, in order to yield information about sliding mechanisms in the future open pit.

Jan 1, 1983

By H. H. Bein

Most western industrial sands are feldspathic and contain feldspars in variahle amounts. A few deposits will show alumina contents of less than one per cent while others will contain over twelve per cent alumina. Some industries are not especially concerned with the amount of contained feldspar but are interested only in color and in size gradations. Other industries, however, are very much interested in alumina content and set up quite rigid specifications as to this content. Several western plants are beneficiating crude sands both to reduce the iron content and to control the feldspar content. At present, most of these plants are using flotation processes for both controls although a few plants do use magnetic separators for the reduction of iron content. Some work has also been done with electrostatic separators for the feldspar-quartz splits. The Sand Division of Del Monte Properties Company, Pebble Beach, California, has been operating a flotation plant for iron removal and the separation of quartz and feldspar since 1950. As mentioned before, control of alumina, especially in the quartz product, is very important. Some users require an alumina content of less than two per cent and others will demand a product of less than one per cent Al2,O3,. The standard Quinolate method for determining alumina is lengthy and time consuming. The HF —H2SO4 evaporation step is especially critical and, if forced, spattering is apt to occur with a resulting loss of sample. Standard procedure is to evaporate to dry ness overnight at a low temperature. Even with forcing under optimum conditions the procerlnre will take two or three hours to complete. A new method has been developed which allows an alumina determination to be made, in 10 or 15 minutes, on a sample of the quartz product as it is being produced. This pocedure, although simply an approximation, has been most helpful in showing whether or not the product being formed is meeting specifications. This procedure has also allowed a great reduction in samples formerly taken and analysed by the orthodox method. Whether a sample assays 1.75% A12O3, or 1.95% .41,0, is not so important as the fact that it is below the allowable maximum of 2.00%. Similar thinking would apply to products required to contain less than 1.00% A1,0,. The step by step procedures for the method are as follows: 1. Collect sample, drain or filter, and dry. 2. Split sample through standard Jones sample cutter to quarter or eighth sample, depending on size of original sample taken, then split down to about 5 grams through Sepor micro-splitter. 3. Screen through 50 mesh sieve (U.S. Series) and reject undersize. 4. Weigh out 2 grams and place in platinum crucible. 5. Etch with 3-5 mls 38.40% HF for 1 minute at room temp. 6. Decant and wash. 7. Stain for two minutes in same crucible with a 1% water solution of Nigrosene dye. 8. Decant and wash well. 9. Dry.

Jan 1, 1961

By John V. Beall

Monotonous flood planes flanked either side of the road as we drove in the embassy car from the airport to downtown Seoul. We crossed the brown waters of the Hann River, meandering over mud flats. A great, gnarled tree bore beautiful fall colors of gold. "That is a Ginko Tree, the oldest living fossil, probably a hundred million years old;" said Jean W. Pressler. Compared to other cities of the Far East, the traffic in and around Seoul was sedate. Few motorcycles or bicycles, and little superfluous horn tooting. "This is the best season in Korea. We have long beautiful springs and falls," said Pressler, chief of the mining branch of USAID, and he continued with a briefing on the country.

Jan 8, 1969

By C. D. Haynes, S. C. Gambrell

The practice of roof bolting in WORLD-WIDE mining activities is very well-known, having been used extensively for over 50 years. The theory of roof bolting, however, is extremely complicated, and only recently have investigators attempted to explain the theory. Various means of stress analysis have been utilized in rock mechanics, most of which reduce rock to an isotropic, homogeneous medium that can be easily analyzed. One of the indirect research methods is the photo-elastic technique, the theory of which is widely known and needs no elaboration. This technique has been used extensively to examine the state of stress around underground openings of various shapes in certain types of strata, and under various loading configurations.'-" In-Situ Mine Roof Trusses The photoelastic technique was employed here to evaluate the state of stress above a mine opening where support is provided by the in-situ mine roof truss. This support configuration, shown in Fig. 1, has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in mines with bad roof conditions." To the authors' knowledge, no scientific determination has been made of the advantages roof trusses may offer over conventional bolting configurations comparable to roof trusses. Ordinary mine roofs usually sag or bulge downward soon after mining. Normally, after some movement the roof begins to stabilize, but the face of this bulging mine rock is usually in tension and will almost always fail unless supported. Because rock fails easily in tension, it is desirable to "preload" the roof, that is, to impress a compressive force on the mine roof to prevent bulging and subsequent tensile failure. Ordinary rock bolting installations, particularly if the bolting is perpendicular to the mine roof plane, do not produce a preloading effect. Although bolting installations squeeze the strata together and produce a beam effect desirable for support, they do not have the advantage of actual uplift. They pull down at the anchorage point with a force equal to the bolt tension which sometimes causes a separation in the plane of the anchorage detrimental to roof strength. In-situ mine roof trusses require the installation of steel tension rods in the roof of the mine much the same as conventional roof bolts, except that the rods are arranged to produce a stress pattern above the upper surface of the opening similar to that of a prestressed beam. The roof rock acts to transmit the compression force. The simplest form of truss consists of two steel rods anchored to the back of holes drilled at an angle of approximately 45 over the mine pillars. These rods are collared near the middle of the room, and the lower ends of the rods are connected by tie rods and turn-buckles. Used in this manner, a small-diameter steel rod can provide essentially the same support as a wide-flange steel beam. By tightening the turnbuckles, an uplift on the roof can be produced. Objective of the Investigation The objective of this investigation was to determine qualitatively the state of stress that exists above a mine roof after the installation of the in-situ mine roof truss vs. that of two angle roof bolts, hereafter referred to as "roof bolts," drilled and placed in the same configuration, that is, 45" above each pillar and connected together in the middle of the room by a bearing member such as a steel beam. Each state of stress was to be identified, insofar as possible, as compression or tension above the mine opening. Model Construction A photoelastic model of a mine opening was coil-structed from -in. thick PLM-4B birefringent plastic and was machined to specification shown in Fig. 2. The dimensions of the opening were chosen to simulate a width-to-depth ratio of 3 to 1. Two % -in. holes were drilled at 45" angles, as shown, to provide for the loading devices. After construction, the model was annealed at 240°F to remove stresses produced during machining.

Jan 1, 1971

By A. C. Fieldner, W. A. Selvig

For purposes of coal classification it is desirable to know the composition and calorific value of the pure coal substance; that is, of the coal free from its ash-forming minerals. Two methods suggest themselves: (1) To free the coal from most of the ash-forming material previous to the analysis; and (2) to analyze the coal as received and calculate the analysis, with certain more or less arbitrary corrections, to the pure-coal basis. Calculation methods are obviously more apt to give correct results with low-ash than high-ash coals. With coals of unusually high ash it would appear preferable to remove, previous to the analysis, as much of the inorganic matter as possible, by float-and-sink or acid-treating methods. Effect of Ignition on Inorganic Constituents of Coal The need of corrections in calculating analysis to the pure-coal basis is due to the fact that the ash, as determined by ignition, is not the same, in either weight or composition, as the inorganic mineral matter in the coal. On ignition a number of changes occur in the coal such as loss of water of hydration of the shaly material, conversion of pyrite (FeS2) to ferric oxide (Fe203) with evolution of the sulfur as sulfur dioxide or possible fixation of more or less of the sulfur in the ash as calcium sulfate (CaSO4), and decomposition of calcite (CaC03) to calcium oxide (CaO). The amount of sulfur from pyrite which remains in the ash as calcium sulfate depends on the amount of calcite and pyrite in the coal. Certain coals high in both calcite and pyrite show relatively large amounts of sulfate sulfur in the coal ash. The determination of total carbon and hydrogen in coal includes, besides the organic carbon and hydrogen, the carbon of inorganic carbonates such as calcite, and the hydrogen of the water of composition of some of the ash-forming minerals. For detailed discussion of corrections proposed for calculations of coal analyses to the " pure "

Jan 1, 1930

The following record of the important responsibilities already shouldered by Dr. Ricketts will give some indication of the trust and confidence reposed in him by his colleagues. The Institute is to be congratulated that a man who is already so much engaged should be willing to assume the further responsibility of guiding the Institute's Ship of state during the ensuing year. Louis Davidson Ricketts, who is brother of Professor Palmer or Chamberlaine Ricketts, President of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, was born at Elkton, Md., Dec. 19. 1859, was graduated from Princeton University in 1881 with the degree, Bachelor of Science, chosen a Fellow in Chemistry and W. S. Ward Fellow in Economic Geology, and after two years' study given the degree Doctor of Science. Following the completion of Iris work at Princeton, Dr. Ricketts went to Colorado and started to work as a mine surveyor. For the 15 years following, his time was chiefly occupied in reconnaissance work, geological work and mine examination. From 1887 to 1890 Dr. Ricketts was Geologist for Wyoming, and at, the end of that period transferred his operations to the Southwest. where he has since been steadily engaged in large mining projects. He was identified with the acquisition of the property now owned by the Moctezuma Copper Co., a , subsidiary of Phelps, Dodge & Co., at Nacozari, Sonora, Mex. From 1899 to 1901 he was General Manager of the property and during his administration the concentrator and reduction works were completed and the mines put on a dividend-paying basis

Jan 3, 1916

By Enrique Hauser

Discussion of the paper of ENRIQUE HAUSER, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1916, and printed in Bulletin No. 110, February, 1916, pp. 521 to 534. GEORGE A. BURRELL, Pittsburgh, Pa. Mr. Hauser determined the influence of inert gases on the properties of fire-damp mixtures, and one might take some issue with his work on the effect of hydrogen, on those mixtures. It is valuable information to have, but as far as the practical application of it goes, it is not of much significance, because one does not find it in mines, at least not in any appreciable amount. The same Fig. 1.-APPARATUS FUR DETECTING COMBUSTIBLE GASES IN AIR. thing can be said of ethylene. Ethylene is formed in considerable quantities as a product of heat reaction, but normally, in the coal mines, as a result of a great many analyses we have made at the Bureau of Mines, we cannot say that ethylene is a combustible gas found in the fire-damp in coal mines.

Jan 5, 1916

By R. A. Bosch, F. V. Lenel, G. S. Ansell

RECENTLY, Ansell and aenel' proposed a dislocation model to account for the yielding behavior of dispersion-strengthened alloys. The criterion for yielding used in this model was that yielding occurs when the shear stress due to arrays of piled-up dislocations fractures or plastically deforms the dispersed second-phase particles. Calculations based on this model predict that the yield strength, uysof a dispersion-strengthened alloy containing particles whose geometry permits them to be considered as straight, i.e. not curved, barriers to dislocations follows the relation where and are the shear moduli of the matrix and dispersed phase respectively, b is the Burger vector of a dislocation in the matrix, A is the mean free path between dispersed phase particles and C is a constant. This yield stress, ys, is closely approximated in polycrystalline alloys by the proportional limit. The offset yield stress, uoy, is the yield stress, uys, plus the increase of stress due to strain hardening in the offset strain increment. Previous investigation1 has shown that Eq. [I] describes the yielding behavior of several different dispersion-strengthened alloys as a function of the mean free path between dispersed phase particles at a constant temperature. The purpose of this investigation was to investigate the temperature dependence of the yielding behavior of dispersion-strengthened alloys. The alloys studied, MD2100 and MD5100, are SAP-type alloys containing flake shaped aluminum oxide particles dispersed in a matrix of commercial purity aluminum. The proportional limit and 0.2 pct offset stress of both of these alloys were determined as a function of temperature over the temperature range from -190" to 500 C. All tests were conducted on an Instron tensile testing machine. Stress was measured by means of the Instron load cell. Strain was measured by means of SR-4 strain gages attached to the tensile specimens. Stress sensitivity was 80 psi. Strain sensitivity was 2 x 10F Fig. 1 shows the values received for the proportional limit and 0.2 pct offset yield stress plotted as a function of homologous temperature for both the MD2100 and MD5100 alloys. Inspection of Eq. [I] shows that of the terms which determine the theoretically predicted yield stress, uy,, only the shear moduli have an appreciable temperature dependence. From Eq. [I] the yield stress at any temperature T, UT, may be predicted from the yield stress at any arbitrary reference temperature, in this case 25 OC, u25, by the relation where the subscripts T and 25 refer to the values of the property at test temperature and at 25"C, respectively. The temperature dependence of the yield stress predicted by Eq. 121, based on the observed value for the proportional limit at 25OC, is also shown in Fig. 1. In evaluating Eq. [2] the following data was used. The values for the shear modulus of

Jan 1, 1962

November 21st, 1871. THE first session of this meeting was held Tuesday evening, in the chamber of the Common Council, the President, Mr. David Thomas, in the chair. Mayor Carroll, of Troy, gave a cordial welcome to the Institute, which was responded to, on behalf of the Institute, by the first Vice-President, Mr. R. W. Raymond. The Council reported the names proposed for membership with recommendation for election. The following named gentlemen were duly elected Anthony, J., - Williamstown, Pa. Babcock, George, - Troy, N. Y. Blake, Theo. A., - San Francisco, Cal. Blossom, T. M., - New York. Boalt, James A., - San Francisco, Cal. Bowman, Amos, - San Francisco, Cal. Chester, Prof. A. H., - Clinton, N. Y. Dewey, C., - Pittsfield, Mass. Dock, Gilliard, - Shamokin, Pa. Emerson, G. D., - New York. Endres, John J., - Pittsburgh, Pa. Firmstone, Frank, - Easton, Pa. Fowle, W. B., - Philadelphia, Pa. Frazier, Prof. B. W., - Bethlehem, Pa. Gardner, George A., - New York. Goodyear, Watson A., - San Francisco, Cal. Griswold, Chester, - Troy, N. Y. Griswold, J. A.,* - Troy, N. Y. Hague, J. D., - San Francisco, Cal. Hahn, O. H., - Eureka, Nev. Harkness, T. C., - Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Harris, Samuel, - Hudson, N. Y. Henry, E. T., - Oxford, N. J. Holley, A. L., - Brooklyn, N. Y. Howe, H. W., - Troy, N. Y. Hunt, Dr. T. Sterry, - Boston, Mass. Jannet, J., - Troy, N. Y. Knapp, John A., - New York. Laughlin, Henry A., - Pittsburgh, Pa. * Since deceased.

Jan 1, 1873

By W. M. Robertson

The formation of grain boundary grooves on surfaces of poly crystalline samples of cobalt and iron immersed in liquid lead has been studied. The grooves form by volume diffusion of the solutes cobalt and iron in the liquid. The diffusion coefficients of the solutes in liquid lead are derived from the measured rate of grooving. The diffusion coefficients are described by the relation D = Do exp (-Q/RT), with, for cobalt, Do = 4.6 x 10-4 sq cm per sec and Q = 5300 ± 800 cal per mole, and for iron, DO = 4.9 x 10-3 sq cm per sec and Q = 10,500 ± 1500 cal per mole. LIQUID metal-solid metal interactions occur at solid-liquid interfaces. Interfacial energy provides a driving force to change the morphology of the interface. Mullins1,2 has derived expressions for the kinetics of interface morphology changes driven by capillarity. These expressions can be applied to an isothermal system of a solid in equilibrium with a liquid saturated with the solid. Surface profile changes can occur by volume diffusion of the solute in the liquid, by volume self-diffusion in the solid, and by interfacial diffusion at the liquid-solid interface. A groove will form at the intersection of a grain boundary with a solid-liquid interface, reducing the total interfacial free energy of the system. The solid-liquid interfacial energy ? must be greater than half the grain boundary energy of the solid ?6 for Mullins' calculations to apply. If ? is less than ?b/2, then the liquid penetrates the boundaries, separating the grains rather than forming grooves. Boundary penetration did not occur in the work described here. where CO is the equilibrium volume concentration of the solid in the liquid, Dv the volume diffusion coefficient of the solid in the liquid, ? the interfacial free energy of the solid-liquid interface, O the atomic volume of the solid crystal, k Boltzmann's constant and T the absolute temperature. Eqs. [1] and [2 ] also apply to grooving by volume self-diffusion in the solid,1 with CoODv = D Self, where DSelf is the volume self-diffusion coefficient of the solid. For a grooving mechanism of interfacial diffusion at the solid-liquid interface, the groove width is given by2 where CS is the interfacial concentration of the diffusing species, and DS is the interfacial diffusion coefficient. Eqs. [1] and [3] can be used to determine the mechanism of groove growth. A t1/3 dependence of the growth indicates volume diffusion and t1/4 indicates interfacial diffusion. In some cases, volume diffusion and interfacial diffusion both can contribute substantially to the grooving process, causing the time dependence to be intermediate between t 1/3 and t1/4.3 For these cases, the relative contributions of the two processes can be separated.4 However, in many cases, one process will be dominant, and the data can be analyzed on the basis of Eq. [1] or Eq. [3] alone. The time dependences for volume diffusion in a liquid and volume self-diffusion in a solid are the same. However, the self-diffusion contribution of the solid is usually negligible compared to volume diffusion in the liquid. After the grooving mechanism has been determined, Eq. [1] or Eq. [3 ] yields the kinetic parameter A or B. The kinetic parameter can be used to calculate values for the unknown quantities in the product CD?. Usually C is known or can be estimated. If ? is known, then D can be calculated. In a measurement of grain boundary grooving of copper in liquid lead,' the time dependence indicated volume diffusion in the liquid. The quantities Co, Dv, and ? were obtained from the literature, giving excellent agreement between the observed values of A and the values calculated from Eq. [2 ].5 In a study of the grooving of several refractory metals in liquid tin and liquid silver, A1len6 educed that grooves formed by volume diffusion in the liquid. In a study of nickel in a nickel sulfide melt, Steidel, Li, and spencer7 found volume diffusion grooving kinetics. Both Dv and ? were unknown, so they could not obtain either one separately, though they did obtain a reasonable value for the temperature dependence of the product Dv ?. Several methods have been used to obtain surface profiles. It can be done by sectioning through the interface7 or by chemically removing the liquid from the solid surface after solidification of the liquid.6 However, if the liquid dewets the solid on removing the solid from the melt, then the interface can be observed directly. This method was used previously' and was utilized also in the present study. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Lead of 99.999 pct purity was obtained from American Smelting and Refining Co. Cobalt sheet was obtained from Sherritt-Gordon Mines, Ltd., with a nominal purity of 99.9 pct, the principal impurities being nickel, iron, copper, carbon, and sulfur. The sheet was

Jan 1, 1969

By Harry Seltz

SEVERAL investigators have measured the heat capacity of cementite, using different methods of attack, but the agreement between the values obtained cannot be considered good. Naeser1 has made measurements of "average heat capacities" of iron carbide between 1026° and 85° K., using a water calorimeter. His computed true specific heat at 78.1° K. is 11.22 cal. per gram-formula mass, which, if correct, is much too high for any reasonably accurate extrapolation to 0° K. The cementite used by Naeser was obtained from a steel containing 0.9 per cent carbon, by electrolytically dissolving out the iron in a neutral bath of ferrous chloride. The cementite remained as a coarse, crystalline, gray powder. Andes" has measured the specific heat of iron carbide, from 102° to 323° K., as it exists in steel. The specific heats of several slugs of steel of known iron carbide content were determined, and the specific heat of the iron carbide (Fe3C) calculated by plotting specific heat versus percentage of carbon, and extrapolating to pure Fe3C (6.7 per cent C). The heat-capacity values for temperatures below 100° K. were obtained by comparing the temperature-specific heat curve for Fe3C to that of Fe. Since the two were very similar in the range examined experimentally and approach more closely at low temperatures, it was assumed that near the absolute zero the form of the curve for Fe3C would be similar to that of Fe. Andes calculates for the entropy of Fe3C, S298 = 23.55 e.u. The heat of formation of Fe3C has been studied by several workers. Kelley' has reviewed these measurements and calculations, and selects those of Roth4 and Naeser5 as worthy of most consideration. Roth has given ?H = 5400 cal. ± 30 per cent as a result of his own and other work. Naeser has determined the heat of formation from Fe and different forms of carbon, and for graphite (ß) he finds OH = 5600 cal. Kelley accepts the rounded figure ?H = 5500 as the heat of formation at 298.1° K., but this value is quite uncertain.

Jan 1, 1939

By Klaus-Peter M. Hanke

INTRODUCTION In early 1979 Jim Walter Resources, Inc. (JWR) of Brookwood, Alabama approached TMCI Construction, Inc (TMCI) to make a proposal on a program that involved the sinking of up to 10 ventilation shafts of approximately 6.7 m (22 ft) diameter and ranging in depth from 500 to 700 m (1650 to 2300 ft) for the JWR coal mines in Alabama. At this time TMCI was already constructing the first spiral underground bunker (capacity 2000 tons) in North America for the JWR organization at their No. 4 mine in Alabama. The TMCI proposal was based on the use of the mos modern large diameter shaft boring machine rather than sinking the shafts using the conventional drill blast-muck technique. The proposal was made based o: the experiences by the parent company, Thyssen Schachtbau, which has been using this type of machin in Germany for shaft boring since 1971. As a result of the TMCI proposal JWR issued a purchase order to TMCI for the construction of four 6.7 m (22 ft) diameter, concrete lined, unfurnished ventilation shafts ranging in depth from 500 to 700 (1650 to 2300 ft). An order was thus placed with WIRTH Machinen- and Bohrgeraete Fabrik GmbH, in Germany for the manufacture of a model 650/850 E/Sch "Schachtbohrmaschine" (Vertical Shaft Borer = V-mole which arrived on site in Alabama in early 1981. The first V-mole GSB 450/500 was introduced in Germany in 1971 and was capable of enlarging in one step a pre-drilled 1.2 m (4 ft) pilot hole to 4.5 - 5.0 m (14.7 - 16.4 ft). This machine has sunk 9 staple shafts and deepened one surface shaft for a total of 2360 m (7740 ft) of shafts. On the last shaft boring operation in 1978 the machine was converted as an experiment to drill without a pilot hol using a hydraulic pumping system to remove the cutting debris. A second generation machine, the SB VI 500/650, was introduced in 1977 for enlarging the pilot hole to a range of 5.0 - 6.5 m (16.4 - 21.3 ft) diameter. This machine is still in operation and has already drilled well over 2000 m (6500 ft) of shaft. The third generation of V-mole, the SB VII 650/85( for diameters from 6.5 to 8.5 m (21.3 to 27.9 ft) was: commissioned in May 1980 and has been used for two surface shaft deepenings totalling 606 m (1990 ft) with another scheduled for 1982. The main advantages favouring the use of such V-moles were identified as: 1) A reduction in manpower to the crew required in a conventional shaft sinking operation. 2) A considerable reduction in time to complete a shaft compared to conventional techniques. 3) The use of the V-mole eliminates many of the hazards encountered in conventional sinking. Based on the successful performance of the first three V-moles in Germany, Thyssen Schachtbau decided to employ this principle abroad. In 1980 a second machine of the third generation was built and is now operated by TMCI Construction, Inc. in Alabama. The first shaft was completed at the end of 1981 and this paper describes the method of operation including some unique aspects not attempted on prior V-mole operations and some of the statistics arising out of the experiences during the first shaft boring operation. THE NO. 7 MINE FAN SHAFT SITE Jim Walter Resources, Inc. was formed in 1970 to exploit the coal field in Alabama on the southern tip of the Appalachian coal field. The coal reserves amount to around 650 million tons of mainly good quality coking coal of which about 350 million tons are to be extracted over the next 30 years. Shaft sinking and preparatory work began in 1972, and at present 6 mines are producing around 5.4 million t.p.a. Annual production is to expand to 10 million t.p.a. as soon as possible, and the ventilation shafts to be sunk by TMCI play a vital role towards attaining this goal. The first shaft site is located at the No.7 mine, near Brookwood, Alabama. The actual location of the shaft relative to the production shafts is shown on the mine plan (Fig. 1), which also shows the room-and-pillar extraction system used at present. The mine plan further shows the conveyor route used for the muck removal. The geological survey showed that the strata consisted of horizontal layers of mainly sandstone, sandy shale and shale interspersed with several coal seams. The seam being extracted at the No. 7 mine is a combined seam made up of the Blue Creek and Mary Lee seams at a depth of 513 m (1682 ft) and having an average seam thickness of about 2 m (6 ft). At the beginning of September 1980 the surface site preparation and pre-grouting work was completed by JWR, and TMCI was able to commence with Stage I of the shaft sinking program - the drilling of the pilot hole.

Jan 1, 1982

By V. H. Whihelm

Since 1935 California has enjoyed a remarkable cycle of discovery, which has placed the state in a very satisfactory position in regard to oil reserves. Most ol the geophysical plays have been drilled and it is possible that new discoveries must be made by the application of careful geologic and stratigraphic studies. During 1940 only one new field was discovered, which, although not of major importance, may lead to additional discoveries. During the year, 113 wildcats were drilled. New discoveries, extensions and a reappraisal of discoveries made in 1939 will not approximate over 50,000,000 bbl., as against an estimated withdrawal during the year of 224,000,000 barrels. Demand in terms of crude for 1940 was 632,000 bbl. per day as against 626,000 bbl. per day for 1939. Demand for gasoline was the same as in 1939, but the demand lor fuel oil increased 3.8 per cent. Compared with 1939, Japanese shipments decreased from 75,786 bbl, per day to 61,000 bbl. per day, but the balance of Pacific foreign shipments increased from 59,409 bbl. per day to 61,304. Total with-drawals from storage during the year will approximate 7,000,000 bbl., almost all of which is fuel oil. Drilling activity was slightly greater than in 1939 and accounted for 890 new producing wells as against 851 for 1939 (Table 3). Production averaged 611,900 bbl. per day as compared with 614.,842 bbl. per day for 1939. The productive acreage figure of the state was increased by 4000 through discoveries and extensions. New Discoveries Los Angeles Basin District Del Vdle Field.—Northwest of Newhall, where the first oil well in California was drilled, R. E. Havenstrite completed his Lincoln No. I well, flowing 390 bbl. of 50" gravity oil together with 7000 M CU. ft. of gas. Later the well was recompleted, after cutting off the gas, for 950 bbl. of 34" gravity oil. The type of structure from which this production is coming is a plunging anticline, complicated by faulting. The Lincoln No. I well uncovered approximately 180 ft. of net sand. This field contains a gas cap and its indicated productive area approximates 500 acres. An intensive wildcat drilling campaign is expected during this coming year in the district in the vicinity of the Del Valle field. Extensions and Deeper Sand Developments Los Ange1es Basin District Athens Field.—On the northwest plunge of the Athens structure, the Thorley Oil Co. completed its No. 12-1 well, flowing 250 bbl. of 3 2" gravity oil from a depth of 8097 ft. The area in which the well is located is complicated by faulting and it is impossible at this date to determine the importance of this deep-zone discovery.

Jan 1, 1941

By V. H. Whihelm

Since 1935 California has enjoyed a remarkable cycle of discovery, which has placed the state in a very satisfactory position in regard to oil reserves. Most ol the geophysical plays have been drilled and it is possible that new discoveries must be made by the application of careful geologic and stratigraphic studies. During 1940 only one new field was discovered, which, although not of major importance, may lead to additional discoveries. During the year, 113 wildcats were drilled. New discoveries, extensions and a reappraisal of discoveries made in 1939 will not approximate over 50,000,000 bbl., as against an estimated withdrawal during the year of 224,000,000 barrels. Demand in terms of crude for 1940 was 632,000 bbl. per day as against 626,000 bbl. per day for 1939. Demand for gasoline was the same as in 1939, but the demand lor fuel oil increased 3.8 per cent. Compared with 1939, Japanese shipments decreased from 75,786 bbl, per day to 61,000 bbl. per day, but the balance of Pacific foreign shipments increased from 59,409 bbl. per day to 61,304. Total with-drawals from storage during the year will approximate 7,000,000 bbl., almost all of which is fuel oil. Drilling activity was slightly greater than in 1939 and accounted for 890 new producing wells as against 851 for 1939 (Table 3). Production averaged 611,900 bbl. per day as compared with 614.,842 bbl. per day for 1939. The productive acreage figure of the state was increased by 4000 through discoveries and extensions. New Discoveries Los Angeles Basin District Del Vdle Field.—Northwest of Newhall, where the first oil well in California was drilled, R. E. Havenstrite completed his Lincoln No. I well, flowing 390 bbl. of 50" gravity oil together with 7000 M CU. ft. of gas. Later the well was recompleted, after cutting off the gas, for 950 bbl. of 34" gravity oil. The type of structure from which this production is coming is a plunging anticline, complicated by faulting. The Lincoln No. I well uncovered approximately 180 ft. of net sand. This field contains a gas cap and its indicated productive area approximates 500 acres. An intensive wildcat drilling campaign is expected during this coming year in the district in the vicinity of the Del Valle field. Extensions and Deeper Sand Developments Los Ange1es Basin District Athens Field.—On the northwest plunge of the Athens structure, the Thorley Oil Co. completed its No. 12-1 well, flowing 250 bbl. of 3 2" gravity oil from a depth of 8097 ft. The area in which the well is located is complicated by faulting and it is impossible at this date to determine the importance of this deep-zone discovery.

Jan 1, 1941

By J. E. Campbell, A. W. Wesner, M. Pobereskin

This paper summarizes the results of an investigation sponsored by The Coates Steel Products Company. The objective was to determine the relative effects of certain chemical and physical properties on the wear resistance of grinding balls when grinding cement. In making this study, a number of types of balls were used in both dry and wet grinding in commercial ball mills. The radioactive-tracer technique was used in separating the test balls from the rest of the mill charge and in sorting the different types of halls that were all tested at the same time for each of the grinding operations. PROCESSING OF GRINDING BALLS In order to determine whether the properties of grinding balls, namely, composition, microstructure and hardness, can be related to the rate of wear, the halls used in this study were selected to represent various combinations of these properties. It was recognized that the mechanism of wear was not the same in the wet mill as in the dry mill. Therefore, the types of balls tested in each of the two environments were not necessarily the same. However, all of the types of balls evaluated in the dry mill were tested simultaneously for one time period, while those evaluated in the wet mill were tested simultaneously for three different time periods. All of the test balls were separated from the charge when the mill was dumped. All of the balls were of 0.940-inch diameter when charged, and all but the regular production balls were finish ground to this size to eliminate the decarburized surface layers. The steels and processing methods used, as well as the micro-structures and hardness levels of the balls, are described as follows: Regular production forged SAE 1095 steel balls were used in both the wet and dry mills. They were forged to a nominal diameter of 0.940 inch and quenched in oil from the forging temperature. Each retained a partially decarburized surface layer from the forging bar stock; the maximum depth of this layer was about 0.030 inch and the decarburization was negligible where the ball was sheared from the bar. The hardness at the surface was 40 to 46 Rock-well C in the partially decarburized area and 57 to 62 Rockwell C in the areas not decarburized. The hardened zone extended to a depth of about one-third of the radius. Below the decarburized layer, the hardened zone consisted primarily of hard as-quenched martensite with varying amounts of retained austenite. This structure changed to fine pearlite at a depth of about one-third of the radius. In order to eliminate the effect of the decarburized layer, a set of production balls of SAE 1095 steel was forged to about a 1-inch diameter, quenched in oil from the forging temperature, and ground on ball-bearing grinding equipment to a 0.940-inch diameter to remove the decarburized layer. The balls' hardened zones were similar to those in the previous set. The hardness of the finished surfaces was 52 to 60 Rockwell C. A slight amount of decarburization apparently remained after the removal of about 0.030 inch from the surface. Balls of this type were tested in the dry mill only. Another set of forged SAE 1095 steel balls of 1-inch diameter was heated to 1500 F and quenched

Jan 1, 1961

By Kenneth F. Whinery, John M. Campbell

Basically, the Buckley-Leverett theory involves two systems which are similar in nature but are differentiated by time. These systems may be described by the fractional flow and frontal advance equations which essentially characterize the mechanics of oil movement while being expelled from the reservoir. The fractional flow equation originally developed by Leverettl may be expressed in the more usable form The development of this equation is based on Darcy's law describing fluid flow through porous media and applies to the flow at only one point (it is a point function). For simplification, the fractional flow equation is written in the above form because the capillary forces always increase the fractional flow of the displacing phase regardless of the direction of flow or the displacing phase. If, for simplicity, the effects due to gravity and capillary pressure differences are neglected, the fraction of the displacing fluid, f, at any point in the flowing stream is related to the properties of the system by 1 Thus, it is seen that in the absence of capillary and gravitational effects, fd for a given sand and fluids varies only with saturation and pressure. The magnitude of the viscosity ratio, —a has an effective range (range of about 30) in the system where gas is displacing oil and a much smaller range for water displacing oil. In order to make the fractional flow equation more versatile, it is necessary to connect the fractional flow at a given point and saturation with time. This problem was approached by Buckley and Leverett" who developed the frontal advance equation, Eq. 3 states that the rate of advance of a plane that has a fixed saturation, Sd, is proportional to the change in composition of the flow stream caused by a small change in the saturation of the displacing fluid. It is, essentially, a transformation of a material balance equation representing the net rate of accumulation of the displacing phase within a homogeneous sand block. This accumulation is proportional to the difference between the rate at which the displacing fluid enters the sand and that at which it leaves. Eq. 3 describes the velocity with which a plane of constant displacing phase saturation advances through a porous system. Buckley and Leverett," Babson,' Kern," Welge, and others have adequately discussed the basic mechanism and application of the fractional flow and frontal advance equations. APPLICATIONS OF THE FRONTAL ADVANCE THEORY TO PETROLEUM RECOVERY Two general applications of the Buckley-Leverett frontal advance theory involve the system in which the oil is being displaced by an expanding gas cap overlying the oil zone and that in which the oil is being displaced by water. Displacement by Gas in the Presence of an Immobile Water Saturation A system in which gas is the displacing phase may be thought of as having two forces effecting the displacement process. These forces are the gravitational force and that force exerted by the displacing gas. The gravitational effects control the displacing efficiency of the gas. The gravitational effect will be less at higher rates of flow, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the displacement of the oil by the gas. The more efficient displacements occur at flow rates which are less than the gravity free fall rate. Capillary forces can be neglected without materially changing the magnitude of the gas saturation. The Mile Six pool is used herein to illustrate the calculating procedures in evaluating gas drive-gravity drainage field perfomlance. These calculations represent the determination of the gas-oil contact when the distribution of the hydrocarbon pore volume is considered. Two methods