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BLOCK CAVING HAS BEEN DEVELOPED to a high degree of efficiency in the last two decades and more particularly since World War II. At the Jeffrey mine of Canadian Johns-Manville Co., in the Eastern Townships of Quebec, several innovations have increased production and decreased costs. Asbestos ore is produced at the rate of 10,000 tpd from an underground operation supplemented by a large open pit that has been mined since 1881. The orebody consists of asbestos veins in a fractured and serpentinized peridotite. Hardness and structural strength of rock vary from soft shear zones at one extreme to a small amount of hard granitic inclusions at the other. In general the ore is weak and deteriorates on exposure to air, so that it is difficult to maintain underground openings for any period of time. Permanent workings are lined with concrete and temporary ones are driven mini- mum size and supported with steel sets as required.

Jan 5, 1954

By J. E. Jopling, J. R. Chenneour, E. L. Derby, S. R. Elliott

The Marquette range, on which are situated the iron mines of Mar-quette County, together with a few in Baraga County, Mich., extends from a point 10 miles southwest of Marquette westward for 30 miles. The tracts are usually a multiple of the standard 40-acre parcel, which is the smallest government subdivision of a square mile or section. About half of the mines are held in fee, these being owned by the older mining companies. Some of them date back to about 1880, and a few are as early as 1850. During the past 40 years most of the mines opened have been on leased lands, the royalty being either for a stated amount per ton or a percentage of the selling price of the ore at the lower lake ports, or the selling price on board of cars at the mine. The first merchantable body of ore discovered in the Lake Superior district was found, in 1845, at what is known as the Jackson mine, near Negaunee. This ore was hard hematite. After unprofitable attempts had been made, in 1848, to smelt it in forges, shipments were begun to lower lake ports, which increased rapidly upon the completion of the locks at Sault Ste. Marie, in 1855, and the railroad from the mines to Marquette, in 1857. Beginning with the Pioneer, in 1858, a number of small charcoal furnaces were built to smelt a part of the product. At various points in the upper and lower peninsulas, large charcoal furnaces are still making iron from the ores of the Marquette range. In connection with these furnaces are byproduct plants. As the deposits were opened up, soft ore was encountered, but for a few years this was disregaided, as only the hard ore was used. Underground mining was begun about 1880 and during the next few years the open-pit mines producing high-grade ore were exhausted. The first mines in the district were owned by the Jackson, Cleveland, Lake Superior, Lake Angeline, Champion, Iron Cliffs, Humboldt, Republic, and Michigamme companies. Many of these companies have been merged in the holdings of The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co., which controls most of the tonnage of the district.

Jan 1, 1925

By Brahm Prakash, R. Schuhmann

Chemical conditions for flotation and nonflotation of cassiterite and fluorite with oleic acid as collector and with alizarin dyes as modifying agents were studied by means of small-scale, vacuum-flotation tests. Artificial cassiterite was prepared fot these tests by high-temperature methods, especially by crystallization from borax melts. FLOTATION test work on Bolivian tin ores some years ago led to the development of several workable schemes of selective soap flotation, but left unanswered many questions of soap-flotation chemistry.' Accordingly, the study of the activation and soap flotation of quartz just reported? was undertaken as a start toward the elucidation of some of the unanswered questions. The experimental work on quartz flotation consisted primarily of small-scale, vacuum-flotation tests in which activator and collector additions and pH were varied between wide limits. In the work to be described in this paper, the soap flotation of cassiterite and fluorite was studied by the vacuum-flotation technique developed in the previous study of quartz. Using oleic acid as collector, conditions for floating cassiterite and fluorite in the absence of modifying agents were first determined. Then the effects of barium, calcium, and alizarin dyes on the flotation of cassiterite, fluorite, and quartz were studied. Alizarin dyes were chosen for study because of the promise they have shown as selective modifying agents in the flotation of non-sulphide minerals.12,1 Also, they form a family of reagents in which there should be a systematic correlation of chemical properties with composition. As a preliminary to the study of cassiterite flotation, an investigation of the preparation of synthetic cassiterite and X ray studies of natural and synthetic cassiterite were undertaken. Experimental Methods The flotation technique and most of the reagent preparations were described fully in the previous paper.' In addition, for the present work it was necessary to prepare satisfactory stocks of clean cassiterite and fluorite and to obtain samples of alizarin dyes. Cassiterite: High-grade cassiterite from the Netherlands East Indies was crushed, sized, and cleaned

Jan 1, 1951

By Brahm Prakash, R. Schuhmann

Chemical conditions for flotation and nonflotation of cassiterite and fluorite with oleic acid as collector and with alizarin dyes as modifying agents were studied by means of small-scale, vacuum-flotation tests. Artificial cassiterite was prepared fot these tests by high-temperature methods, especially by crystallization from borax melts. FLOTATION test work on Bolivian tin ores some years ago led to the development of several workable schemes of selective soap flotation, but left unanswered many questions of soap-flotation chemistry.' Accordingly, the study of the activation and soap flotation of quartz just reported? was undertaken as a start toward the elucidation of some of the unanswered questions. The experimental work on quartz flotation consisted primarily of small-scale, vacuum-flotation tests in which activator and collector additions and pH were varied between wide limits. In the work to be described in this paper, the soap flotation of cassiterite and fluorite was studied by the vacuum-flotation technique developed in the previous study of quartz. Using oleic acid as collector, conditions for floating cassiterite and fluorite in the absence of modifying agents were first determined. Then the effects of barium, calcium, and alizarin dyes on the flotation of cassiterite, fluorite, and quartz were studied. Alizarin dyes were chosen for study because of the promise they have shown as selective modifying agents in the flotation of non-sulphide minerals.12,1 Also, they form a family of reagents in which there should be a systematic correlation of chemical properties with composition. As a preliminary to the study of cassiterite flotation, an investigation of the preparation of synthetic cassiterite and X ray studies of natural and synthetic cassiterite were undertaken. Experimental Methods The flotation technique and most of the reagent preparations were described fully in the previous paper.' In addition, for the present work it was necessary to prepare satisfactory stocks of clean cassiterite and fluorite and to obtain samples of alizarin dyes. Cassiterite: High-grade cassiterite from the Netherlands East Indies was crushed, sized, and cleaned

Jan 1, 1951

CONTENTS PAGE HESSE, A. W,-Safeguarding Coal-mining Operations against Danger from Oil and Gas Wells. Discussed by A. W. Hesse, T. G. Fear, George H. Ashley, George S. Rice, W. E. Fohl, R. V. Norris, S. A. Taylor, F. B. Tough, C. W. Gibbs, A. Hurlburt, S. W. Meals 1 DAWSON, THOS. W.-Belt Conveying of Coal at H. C. Frick Coke Company Mines. Discussed by F. F. Jorgensen, Thos. W. Dawson, Graham Bright, A. W. Hesse 13 OTTO, HENRY H.-Ultimate Recovery from Anthracite Coal Beds. Discussed by R. V. Norris, S. A. Taylor, Henry H. Otto, Douglas Bunting, Graham Bright, Howard N. Eavenson, J. B. Warriner 15 HOSLER, Rush N.-Schedule Rating Coal Mines in Pennsylvania for Compensation Insurance Rates. Discussed by E. A. Holbrook, W. W. Adams 17 ARCHBALD, HUGH.-Application of Gaussian Curve to Mining Industry. Discussed by Donald A. Laird, T. T. Read 19 ASH, SIMON H.-System of Coal Mining in Western Washington. Discussed by Eli T. Conner, Simon H. Ash 21 MILLER, J. S.-Method of Mining a Steeply Pitching Anthracite Vein by Successive Skips. Discussed by Eli T. Conner, J. S. Miller, J. B. Warriner 22 HARRINGTON, GEORGE B.-New Orient, an Unusual Coal Mine. Discussed" by George S. Rice, Eli T. Conner, John A. Garcia, George B. Harrington, F. F. Jorgensen, Graham Bright, W. M. Hoen, George N. Simpson, W. C. Adams, R. W. McNeill, Chas. C. Whaley, Carl Scholz, E. T. Gott, Andrews Allen 23 PERROTT, G. ST. J.-Properties of Liquid-oxygen Explosives. Discussed by George S. Rice 48 Safeguarding Coal-mining Operations against Danger from Oil and Gas Wells Discussion of the paper of A. W. HESSE, presented at the New York Meeting, Feb-ruary, 1925, and issued, as Paper No. 1412-F, with MINING AND METALLURGY, February, 1925. A. W. HESSE.-The well under investigation, No. 101, Fig. 2, was started about Sept. 5, 1921, and drilled-in in November. The first hole was started with a 13-in. bit and reached the Pittsburgh coal at a depth of 563 ft.; at 602 ft. the 10-in. casing was run in and the well was continued with a 10-in. bit and 1400 ft. of 8-in. casing was put in. It was then continued to a depth of 1770 ft. and 6-in. casing put in; then continued to a depth of 2555 ft. where the gas was struck. As the well produced only about 100,000 cu. ft. per day. 2-in. tubing was used to conduct the

Jan 6, 1925

By W. F. Kieschnick, and W. J. McGuire&apos, Eugene Harrison

This paper concerns the induction and extension of fractures into rock formations as involved in drilling, completing, and production stimulating operations on wells. Conclusions concerning formation breakdown are derived from (I) a review and extension of published analyses relating to mechanical theories of rock stress and the state of stress in the earth's crust and (2) a correlation of field data from fracturing operations. Conclusions concerning the mechanics of fracture extension, which indicate the relationship between fracture dimensions and rock properties, depth, and volume of injected fluid, are tentative and largely establish limits of relationships. These conclusions are derived from stress calculations, limited field data, and laboratory experimental studies. The experimental work involves the study of the stresses at the fracture boundaries and the geometry of pressurized fractures by means of photo-elastic modeling methods. Results of this investigation indicate that a large majority of pressure induced wellbore fractures are vertical, particularly in deeper wells; and variations in the pressures necessary to create and extend fractures can be explained largely on a basis of established rock properties. It is also shown that variations due to tectonic forces should usually be expected to be slight. Other results indicate that during that extension of fractures rather large fracture volumes are temporarily created by the parting of the formation. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of calculations and laboratory experiments concerning the mechanics of fracture induction and extension with a view to broadening existing knowledge relating to these phenomena. It is believed that continued progress in developing knowledge of this type is important to the further development of techniques for drilling and completing wells. When a wellbore is subjected to sufficiently high pressure, fracturing of the formation surrounding the well occurs. This phenomenon is a common cause of lost circulation during drilling operations, is a deliberately planned factor in most squeeze cementing operations, and is the controlling factor in many productivity stimulation operations. The exploitation of formation fracturing in recent years has been particularly impressive in sand-viscous fluid well stimulation treatments which were first introduced to the industry by the Stanolind research group1,2,3 several years ago. The borehole fracturing phenomenon has been analyzed mathematically by application of the principles defining the elastic and inelastic behavior of thick-walled cylinders of homogeneous, isotropic, and impermeable material.1,5,6 This basic argument is re-presented in this paper along with new considerations which strengthen it. In addition to these arguments relating to fracture induction some calculations and experimental results relating to the mechanics of fracture extension are presented. Since the nature of the pressure induced fracture at distances from the well is of great importance in considerations of well stimulation procedures there appears to be a need for an integrated approach which deals with the mechanics of fracture extension as well as with wellbore rupture.

Jan 1, 1955

By T. T. Read

Personnel work is a term recently introduced to cover the great variety of activities in industrial work that deal with the human factor. Much attention has been focusscd upon individual phases of personnel work, such as accident prevention, sanitation, "welfare" work, reducing labor turnover, and so on. In most cases these activities have been carried on as though they were distinct and separate fields; as a matter of fact, they are only different phases of the single problem of human engineering, and each has important and fundamental relations with the others. Thus, for example, high labor turnover is one of the most important causes of a high accident rate, and unsatisfactory housing conditions are an important cause of labor turnover. In the early stages of the study of these problems, it was necessary to take them up separately; the time has now arrived at which it is desirable to consider them as a whole in order to bring them into the right relation to each other. When thus considered as phases of an interrelated whole, they may be grouped as personnel work. A discussion of the importance of personnel work as a means of increasing dividends in industry may be objected to by some as a too materialistic way of looking upon work that is humanitarian. Nothing could be more mistaken than such an opinion. Humanitarianism, per se, has no place in industry, and nothing is gained and much is lost in pretending that it has. The only reason why a corporation engages in business is to make profits, and any activity of the corporation that does not tend either directly or indirectly toward that end is poor business. It is equally poor business to overlook any activities that do tend indirectly to the making of profits. On this basis, personnel work can be justified as a corporate activity; there is no justification whatever for abstract *humanitarianism from the business standpoint. One characteristic of the American workman is a general high level of intelligence, and it is an insult to intelligence to ask a man to believe that anything so impersonal as a corporation is really desirous of benefiting

Jan 1, 1918

As a representative of the Institute in the Joseph A. Holmes Safety Association, which comprises some twenty-three different National Societies, it is proper that I make some report of the progress of the Association to the Institute. The societies represented in the organization are as follows: Association- Representatives, 1916 American Association for the Advancement of Science L. 0. Howard American Chemical Society Charles Baskerville American Electro-Chemical Society F. G. Cottrell American Federation of Labor : A. E. Helder American Forestry Association P. S. Ridsdale American Institute of Electrical Engineers John H. Finney American Institute of Mining Engineers Hennen Jennings American Mining Congress David T. Day American Red Cross Society Maj. Robert U. Patterson American Society for Testing Materials A. W. Gibbs American Society of Mechanical Engineers..... John A. Brashear

Jan 4, 1917

By J. E. Pollock, W. R. Hicks, E. Camp

IN the oil-refining industry, steel comprises by far the greatest proportion of the materials used in construction work, but with an enormous number of alloy steels and nonferrous alloys available, and a greater knowledge of their properties and corrosion resistance, a substitution first in the "hot spots" and then in locations of moderately severe corrosive conditions will be made as the greater expense can be justified. In new construction work, advantage is taken of the experience already gained and appropriate materials used, whether for high temperatures and pressures demanding additional strength or for corrosive conditions. The locations, however, where equipment in operation constantly requires replacement will soon become evident, as will the necessity for replacement in more resistant materials, if considerable down-time is to be avoided. In what direction and how far to go in the matter of alloys then becomes a question of the highest importance. Obviously, any replacement with more costly material must be justified economically by the promise of longer life, thereby saving both material and installation costs besides the reduction of loss of production. Where the equipment is overcapacity and a regular schedule of cleaning periods is in force, the last item frequently must be ruled out and justification made on the basis of the first two only. Installation of material that will outlast the remainder of the equipment and have no recovery value must also be avoided; this is particularly important in temporary construction or in old equipment that will soon become obsolete. TEST METHODS Either one Of two methods or a combination of both, in the absence of reliable data in similar services, may be adopted to determine to what extent replacement with other, and perhaps more expensive, materials is justified. A unit may be constructed incorporating different metals or alloys so that comparative service may be obtained under the same service conditions; this has been applied in many instances, such as condenser and tank construction, but the opportunities for inspection may be few and

Jan 1, 1935

By R. A. Vandermeer, Paul Gordon

On the basis of a unified concept, theoretical erPressions for grain boundary migration in recrys-tallization are derzved for impurity-controlled and impurity-independent migration. The expression in the former case is analogous to that Previously derived by Lucke and Detert, and in the latter is shown to be equivalent to that usually obtained on the basis of absolute reaction rate theory. The equations are tested with quantitative experimental data for boundary migration obtained for the recrystallization of poly crystalline zone-refined alumimnz and for binary "alloys" of this aluminum with 0.00021, 0.00043, 0.0017, 0.0034, 0.0068, 0.0124, and 0.0256 at. pct Cu, respectively. All the essential characteristics of the e@erimentally determined boundary migration rates check both qualitatively ard quantitatively with the predictions of the theoretical equations. THE rates of transformations are customarily analyzed phenomenologically in terms of the two component rates—N, the rate of nucleation and, G, the rate of growth of the nuclei. The scientific aim of both theory and experiment is to describe the fundamental atomic phemmena involved in these two component processes with the hope that parameters calculated from theoretical equations will check those found experimentally. In solid state transformations, the theoretical and experimental problems are both generally of almost prohibitive complexity, for in addition to changes in composition and in such properties as density which may accompany transformations in amorphous, nonrigid materials, transformations in crystalline substances also involve structural changes, crystal reorientations, and the development of stresses. In studying such transformations it thus becomes; highly desirable, if not essential, to focus on a transformation and a set of conditions which minimize the number of active variables. This principle has been applied with considerable success by Cohen and his associates' in their evaluation of nucleation theories using the martensite transformation as the basis of study. A similar possibility exists for the evaluation of growth theories by the use of recrystallization after cold-deforming. If an unalloyed metal is employed as the subject of investigation, the recrystallization transformation involves basically only a change in strain-conditions and orientations. In spite of this possible simplilfication, however, until recently little quantitative success has attended attempts to correlate recrystal1ization parameters measured experimentally with those calculated theoretically. It seems highly probable that this lack of success may be attributed, both in the experimental and theoretical treatments, to one or more of the following factors: a) conditions have usually been studied under which apparently* both nucleation and growth are active;

Jan 1, 1962

At 8 o'clock on the evening of Thursday, July 25th, the special train chartered by the Provincial Government for the Institute's use, pulled out of Toronto. Ten parlor cars and two dining cars made up the train. The culinary arrangements were under the personal supervision of Mr. McConkey, of Toronto. [ ] The Hon. Frank Cochrane, Minister of Mines, Lands and Forests, was the efficient host of the party. He was assisted by the Hon. Dr. Pyne, Minister of Education, and by Mr. T. W. Gibson and Dr. W. G. Miller. On arriving at Cobalt, the delegates were met by the following Committee Mr. A. A. Cole, representing the T. & N. 0. Railway; Messrs. R. W. Leonard and D. B. Rochester, deputies from the Cobalt Chamber of Mines ; Messrs. Run¬ning and Martin, from the Cobalt City Council; Messrs. McLeod and Ferland,

Jan 1, 1907

The Geophysics Education Committee has devoted several years to a consideration of the problem of training geophysi-cists. Past reports have dealt largely with fact finding and with the discussion of particular aspects of geophysical education. In the present report it is proposed to review the subject more comprehensively. This involves the question of what educational qualifications the geophysicist of the highest professional standards should possess, and the related question of what changes must be effected in existing educational institutions in order that prospective professional geophysicists may obtain instruction of the desired quality. The type of geophysicist here contemplated is one familiar with what is known already in the several branches of earth physics, and capable not only of following contemporary progress in any of these branches, but of contributing to that progress in a research capacity. Geophysics in its broadest sense, as has been emphasized repeatedly by this Committee, is the study of the physics of the earth and of terrestrial processes. This includes both the static and the dynamic characteristics of the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid portions of the earth, as well as its gravitational, thermal, and magnetic and electrical manifestations. Some branches of earth physics have been cultivated but slightly; others have reached an advanced state of development. Those branches whose development is sufficient to warrant explicit recognition in the form of organized Sections of the American Geophysical Union are: geodesy, seismology, tectonophysics, and volcanology, dealing with the rock constituents of the earth; oceanography and hydrology with the aqueous constituents; meteorology with the atmospheric constituents; and terrestrial electricity and magnetism with the electromagnetic manifestations. At present, instruction on the professional level in any of these branches of earth physics can be obtained in but few universities in North America. In most institutions where such instruction is undertaken different subjects are given in different and independent departments. Geodesy and hydrology are taught, if at all, as a part of civil engineering. The nearest approach to volcanology and tectonophysics ordinarily is represented by petrology and structural geology given

Jan 1, 1946

The Geophysics Education Committee has devoted several years to a consideration of the problem of training geophysi-cists. Past reports have dealt largely with fact finding and with the discussion of particular aspects of geophysical education. In the present report it is proposed to review the subject more comprehensively. This involves the question of what educational qualifications the geophysicist of the highest professional standards should possess, and the related question of what changes must be effected in existing educational institutions in order that prospective professional geophysicists may obtain instruction of the desired quality. The type of geophysicist here contemplated is one familiar with what is known already in the several branches of earth physics, and capable not only of following contemporary progress in any of these branches, but of contributing to that progress in a research capacity. Geophysics in its broadest sense, as has been emphasized repeatedly by this Committee, is the study of the physics of the earth and of terrestrial processes. This includes both the static and the dynamic characteristics of the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid portions of the earth, as well as its gravitational, thermal, and magnetic and electrical manifestations. Some branches of earth physics have been cultivated but slightly; others have reached an advanced state of development. Those branches whose development is sufficient to warrant explicit recognition in the form of organized Sections of the American Geophysical Union are: geodesy, seismology, tectonophysics, and volcanology, dealing with the rock constituents of the earth; oceanography and hydrology with the aqueous constituents; meteorology with the atmospheric constituents; and terrestrial electricity and magnetism with the electromagnetic manifestations. At present, instruction on the professional level in any of these branches of earth physics can be obtained in but few universities in North America. In most institutions where such instruction is undertaken different subjects are given in different and independent departments. Geodesy and hydrology are taught, if at all, as a part of civil engineering. The nearest approach to volcanology and tectonophysics ordinarily is represented by petrology and structural geology given

Jan 1, 1946

By E. H. Sellards

Phosphate rock like other mineral substances is found in nature in varying degrees of purity.

Jan 1, 1915

By O. Jay Myers

The war effort has furnished the necessary impetus for better magnesium foundry practice. Four or five years ago, there were but a few formulas in general use for core-sand mixtures for magnesium castings. Certain sands, binders, and inhibitors were specified and the proportions of these materials in each mixture were maintained between very narrow limits. As more and more war industries entered the field, much research was carried out and methods and practices were improved. Magnesium founding is still in a state of flux; therefore it is not uncommon to find one foundry spraying inhibitors on its cores, and another foundry using sand mixtures with incorporated protective agents. The basic core or dry-sand mold mixture for magnesium in use today is compounded with sand, core oil or resin binder, cereal, and moisture. Core oil or resin binder are added for baked strength while the cereal binder and moisture are for green strength. The normal mixtures (based on the weight of the sand) contain from o.5 to 1.5 per cent of both cereal binder and core oil, and the moisture content variesbetween 1.5 and 5 per cent. The ratio of core oil to cereal binder varies from 60:40 to 40:60, while the correct amount of moisture depends upon the method of coremaking. Protective Agents In all magnesium practice, protective agents are used in conjunction with the core and molding sands to prevent oxidation of the metal. The use of these inhibitors is not novel, but publications covering this field are not entirely adequate. Beck1 says: Magnesium alloys decompose water to form magnesium oxide, hydrogen being liberated in the process (Mg + H2O ? H2 ?+ MgO). This reaction results in the blackening of the skin and the appearance of areas of porosity on the casting surface, the cavities of which are filled with a grey oxide powder (these are termed 'burns'). Although sand cores for magnesium castings are thoroughly dried during the baking cycle, burning will take place on the casting5 unless the metal is protected properly. This type of burning is more difficult to define than the "water-magnesium" reaction cited by Beckl A possible explanation may lie in the following equation: 2Mg + O2—> 2MgO Here, the source of the oxygen is not water, but the air in the mold cavity, together with the chemically combined oxygen in the core-binding media. Generally, two methods are used to prevent this reaction from taking place.

Jan 1, 1945

By R. N. Upadhyay, M. Maleki, I. Fatt

Conventional laboratory core analysis tests on samples of two limestone reservoir rocks indicate that about 20 per cent of PV is in dead-end pores. These tests (electric logging formation factor, mercury injection capillary pressure and miscible displacement) were carried out on 1/4-in. diameter test plugs. Test results show a clear dilference between these samples and sandstone or homogeneous limestone reservoir rock. Although the amount of dead-end pore space can be only roughly estimated, the presence of such pore space seems clearly indicated. Pressure transient studies also show presence of deadend PV. Although they do not give quantitative results, pressure transient data yield a reasonable estimate of the size of the neck connecting dead-end pores to the main flow channels. INTRODUCTION Equations conventionally used to describe reservoir flow behavior contain the implicit assumption that all connected pore spaces contributed to both porosity and permeability. Several authors3-7 have pointed out the changes in pressure transient behavior and in electric log interpretation that may result if this assumption is incorrect and, instead, dead-end or cul-de-sac pores are present. There is a need for laboratory tests that can detect presence of dead-end pores in core samples. With such information on hand the petroleum engineer can make more rational use of the mathematical tools now available for analysis of reservoir flow behavior. This paper describes laboratory studies designed to detect and, if possible, give a quantitative measure of dead-end PV in laboratory-size core plugs. Three reservoir rocks were used, two of which were limestones suspected of having deadend pore spaces and a well-known sandstone, used as a comparison standard, in which there is believed to be little or no dead-end pore space. All the studies were designed to measure the natural dead-end PV; i.e., the pore space which is dead-ended because of rock structure. During multiphase flow in a rock without dead-end pores, some parts of one of the phases can become surrounded by the other, thereby giving (for certain flow behavior) an effective dead-end pV8,9. Such behavior will not be described here.

Jan 1, 1967

By W. B. Triplett, H. I. Aaronson, G. M. Andes

A detailed morphological study has been made of the pro-eutectoid TiCr, and the eutectoid reactions in a Ti-17.42 pct Cr alloy isothermally transformed at temperatures from 775° through 5561°C. The morphologies of proeute,ctoid TiCr2 were found to be subject to description by the Dube morphological classification system. Grain boundary allotriomo.lphs are the dominant plpoeutectoid morphology throughout the temperature range investigated. lntragranular plates, and especially Widmanstatten sideplates, form only in small numbers. This morphological pattern differs markedly from that of the proeutectoid a reaction in hypoeutectoid Ti-Cr alloys (AIME Trans., 1957, vol. 209, p. 1227; 1958, vol. 212, p. 624), in which plates form prolifically throughout wide ranges of temperature. The eutectoid reaction is nonlamellar in character at 675°C. An increasingly prominent lamellar component develops at lower temperatures. The proeutectoid TiCr 2 and the eutectoid transformations have been studied metallographically in a hypereutectoid titanium-chromium alloy. This investigation was undertaken with the immediate objective of comparing these transformations with their counterparts in hypoeutectoid titanium-chromium alloys, studies of which have been recently completed.1,2 It was also intended, however, to contribute to the general literature on transformations of these types. Especially in the proeutectoid case, this literature is still sufficiently sparse to make difficult the testing of generalizations on the mechanisms of these transformations. TiCr, is the only intermetallic compound in the titanium-chromium system.3-5 The TiCr2 phase field extends to a maximum temperature of 1350°C) and encompasses the approximate composition range of 62 to 68 pct Cr at lower temperatures.3'4 At temperatures below 1000°C, TiCr2 has a MgCu,-type fcc structure, with 24 atoms comprising a unit cell.6,7 Only fragmentary observations on the morphology of proeutectoid TiCr2 have been previously reported. An observation which is of considerable importance with respect to the results obtained during the present investigation was made, however, on anisother-mally transformed alloys with high chromium (48 to 70 pct Cr) contents.3"8 Despite the occurrence of extensive impingement, it is apparent that a substantial proportion of the proeutectoid TiCr, which precipitated in these alloys grew in the form of Widmanstatten plates. Several observations have been made on the eutectoid reaction in hypereutectoid alloys during investigations of the titanium-chromium phase di-

Jan 1, 1961

By R. E. Pray, M. C. Fuerstenau, J. D. Miller, B. F. Perinne

Quartz cannot be floated with potassium amyl xanthate as collector at any pH. Complete flotation is achieved with certain minimal additions of amyl xanthate and Pb from pH 5.8 to 8.5 and with amyl xanthate and Zn from pH 7.5 to 8.1. The active species of these metal ions responsible for activation are shown to be PbOH and ZnOH No flotation was effected when Cu and Mg were added as activators. Previous work1,2,3,4,5,6,7 has shown that quartz may be floated in the presence of sulfonate or soap when the following two criteria are met: 1) some portion of the added metal ion has hydro-lyzed to its first hydroxy complex, and 2) a precipitate of the metal-collector has formed. Since sulfonate and soap, two substantially different anionic collectors, conform to these criteria, this phenomenon may well be expected to be of a general nature. In this view then, it would appear that any anionic collector, including xanthates, should also float quartz when these two criteria are met. The object of this paper is to demonstrate the conditions under which quartz will respond to flotation in the presence of potassium amyl xanthate. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES Quartz was prepared by leaching the sized sample (48 x 150 mesh) with HC1 until no iron could be detected in the leach liquor. Conductivity water, made by passing distilled water through an ion exchange column, was used in the investigation. Potassium amyl xanthate was selected as collector. Purification of this reagent was effected with the following method: 1) a laboratory sample of potassium amyl xanthate was dissolved to saturation in hot ethyl alcohol and filtered several times while still hot, 2) the filtrate was cooled, during which time potassium amyl xanthate crystallized out of solution; the xanthate was then separated from the solution by filtration, 3) the amyl xanthate was dissolved in fresh hot ethyl alcohol and filtered, 4) step (2) was repeated, 5) the crystalline potassium amyl xanthate was washed with ethyl ether five times, and 6) the xanthate was dried for 24 hours under continuous vacuum. Inorganic impurities are insoluble in hot ethyl alcohol whereas dixanthogen is soluble in ethyl ether. Five-gram charges of 48x150 mesh quartz were conditioned for 3 min in 125 cc of solution containing the reagents and were floated with the small-scale cell and procedure described in previous papers.478 Reagent grade HCl and NaOH were used for pH adjustment, while reagent n-amyl alcohol was added as frother. Frother addition is necessary with this technique, but it should be mentioned that data, similar to those shown in Fig. 2 for 1 x10-4 mole per liter Pb++ and 1 X 10-4 mole per liter AX-, were also obtained with a Hallimond cell in the absence of frother. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Clean quartz could not be floated with amyl xanthate at any pH. Flotation was achieved under certain conditions, however, when various metal ions were added to the system. The activating ions used were lead, zinc, copper and magnesium, added as reagent grade chloride salts. Lead as Activator: The effect of Pb++ as activator was examined at five different additions of amyl xanthate (Fig. 1, 2 and 3). When 1x 10-5 mole per liter xanthate was added in the presence of 1 x 10"4 mole per liter Pb ++, no flotation was obtained at pH 6.5 or below, while a recovery of about 60% was effected at pH 7. When the pH was increased to 7.8, no flotation was again obtained, Complete depression was noted from pH 7.8 to about 10, at which point a recovery of about 30% was achieved. At about pH 11, the precipitate of lead amyl xanthate which was present below this pH dissolved and complete depression occurred. When 2.5x 10-5 mole per liter xanthate was added with the same lead addition, no flotation was obtained at pH 5.8 and below, whereas a recovery of

Jan 1, 1965

By J. C. Trantham, J. W. Marx

From 1955 to 1958 the Phillips Petroleum Co. conducted a series of small scale counterflow combustion field tests in a tar sand about 60-ft deep and 6 to 12-ft thick near Bellamy, Mo. A total of seven different well patterns, including conventional five-spots and seven-spots plus a 15-well line drive pattern and a 10-well radial pattern, were employed. Electric heaters, gas burners and wellbore fuel packs were tested as counterflow ignition devices. Direct drive ignition followed by reversal to counterflow operation was not possible in this case because of formation plugging by the semi-solid tar during the direct drive phase. Sustained counterflow burning was achieved with wellbore fuel packs under conirolled conditions which permitted close correlation of fire front velocity, air velocity, air-oil ratios and yields for a wide variation in process parameters. The tar in place was about 10' APl with a reservoir viscosity greater than 500,000 cp. The composite oil prodlcct was 26' API with a viscosity in the range of 5 to 15 cp. Vertical sweep efficiency in the line drive pattern was essentially 100 per cent, with no evidence of gravity segregation. Original tar in place ranged between 800 and 1,000 bbllacre-ft, specific rock permeability averaged about 800 md before burning and effective air pemeability with residual oil and water in place (at the time of ignition) averaged 250 md. The volume of oil recovered during stabilized line drive counterflow burning represented about 67 per cent of the volume of tar originally in place in the burned out zones. A minimum was found when air-oil ratios were plotted against formation air velocities, and a limiting air velocity existed below which the counterflow fire front reversed and burned back over its own trajectory, using the residual coke left behind. INTRODUCTION Early in 1955 the Phillips Petroleum Co. began preparations to field test counterflow underground combustion as a method for producing oil from high viscosity hydrocarbon deposits, such as bituminous (tar) sands. At that time all published information on the use of underground burning io increase oil recovery was based on the direct drive process, in which the fire front moved through the formatim in the same direction as the injected air stream. Such direct burning is not applicable to many heavy oil sands or to most tar sands because the heat-thinned native hydrocarbon congeals in the cold rock ahead of the fire front forming a gas permeability block which smothers the combustion. Laboratory experiments first demonstrated that this permeability blocking would not occur if the fire front and the air stream moved in opposite directions. In this counterflow (reverse) burning process the heated heavy oil or tar is driven back through the combustion zone. Here thermal cracking produces relatively light hydrocarbon products which pass through the heated rock behind the fire front (largely in the vapor phase) and are incapable of causing a gas permeability block.' Exploratory wring revealed that consolidated bituminous sandstones with a combination of tar saturation, permeability, thickness and depth favorable for experimental field testing existed at several points in western Missouri. By the fall of 1955, a test site for determining technical feasibility of the counterflow process under field conditions had been selected near Bellamy, Vernon County, Mo. — about fifty miles north of Joplin. The pay zone was too thin and too shallow to constitute a commercial prospect, but these same factors permitted controlled experimental operation with a small compressor installation and with a large number of monitor wells. These were needed for adequate observation of the underground phenomena at reasonable cost. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS The reservoir chosen for the experimental field tests was a 124 thick section of tar sand extending from 49 to 61 ft subsurface, with shale and siltstone laminations sealing the top and bottom. This section was part of a larger 30-ft thick tar sand deposit which extended both above and below the test zone. Core analyses showed that the 12-ft sand was effectively subdivided into two approximately equal sections, with the lower zone being consistently more permeable than the upper zone. The most significant laboratory core data are summarized in Table 1. The line drive test which is the principal subject of this report utilized only the lower 6-ft thick zone, with the upper zone regarded as part of the 55-ft overburden. WELL PATTERNS The over-all field test program involved a total of seven different well patterns, including conventional five-spots and seven-spots plus a 15-well line drive pattern and a 10-well radial pattern. In some of the tests the full 12-ft zone was employed; in other cases only the more perme-

Jan 1, 1967

Jan 1, 1957