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By COREY C. BRAYTON

PACIFIC COAST steel and iron industries can now take care of all the western and export demands except for heavy structural shapes, thick plates, rails, alloy tool steels, and a few other items. In. 1902 all of our steel came from St. Louis and Milwaukee and points still farther east. A small quantity at that time came from foreign countries. Early mining in the West was, broadly speaking, prior to the steel age. 'Wood for structures and iron for castings were almost exclusively used. Forgings were made of rolled iron that came from the East and foreign countries. San Francisco was, from the early days of mining, the manufacturing center for mining and milling machinery of all types and held that position until the .nineties, when eastern competition began to be felt. Even today in the old mining camps of the West, and many abroad, you will find machines and equipment with familiar San Francisco manufacturers' names. ..Iron, either rolled or cast, entered into their manufacture, for steel castings did not come into general use :until the nineties.

Jan 1, 1929

By Eugene S. Perry

The oil and gas industries in Montana continued through the year of 1937 with but little change. No new fields were discovered, and production of old fields did not vary greatly. No outstanding wildcat wells were drilled. Perhaps most notable were extensions in the western part of the Kevin-Sunburst field. Acid treatment of wells in the Kevin and Pondera fields continued with gratifying results.

Jan 1, 1938

By D. H. Newland

On the bulk basis New York's contribution to the production of oil is small, representing, as it does, a bare half of one per cent of the annual total for the United States. Yet it has more importance than is implied by such a statement. Petroleum includes a variety of organic compounds, some more and some less valuable. It would be a fairer estimate of the situation to say that New York in recent years has produced around 10 to 12 per cent on the average of all Pennsylvania grade oil, the supply of which is strictly limited and the demand steady even in times of overproduction of other grades. One may not infer from this that New York and other Appalachian states enjoy an independent position in the market with a price structure uninfluenced by that of the Mid-Continent, Gulf or California fields. On the other hand, the recent market demoralization in the South and West brought about by uncontrolled production caused prices to drop to a point where the life of the local industry was seriously threatened. The current cost of producing oil in New York under the methods of water-flooding, by which most of the output is now obtained, has been estimated by competent authority at not less than $2.50 a barrel. The

Jan 1, 1934

(Under this heading will be published notes sent to the Secretary of the Institute by members or other persons introduced by members.) Member, aged 34, married, technical graduate, 10 years' experience as mining engineer and mine superintendent, desires position. Can show low cost records and good references. No. 176.

Jan 1, 1916

By Howard L. Hartman, Burke O. Trafton

There is a fruitful area of computer competence which has gone virtually unnoticed by the mining industry. This is in the solution of its numerous fluid-flow distribution problems, involving the circulation of air, water and other fluids in conduits through mines. Typical of these is the mine ventilation system, which circulates air through mine openings to the working faces. The networks of interconnected airways in large mines-often resembling a tortuous maze or labyrinth defying representation by schematic, let alone solution-must somehow be resolved and analyzed, if effective and safe control of the ventilation is to be maintained. These are admirably suited to programming for solution by high-speed electronic computer. Not only can direction of flow be determined but quantity and head loss as well. EARLIER EFFORTS AT NETWORK SOLUTION The only prior attempt to solve mine ventilation networks by digital computer methods was made by a Japanese investigator1 in 1958 whose work went unpublished. Unfortunately, he employed a method of network analysis little used in the United States and one which could accommodate a maximum of only 30 airways. While his analysis seems unnecessarily cumbersome and involved, it did suggest that a digital computer approach was feasible.

Jan 9, 1963

The Ural Mountains, which were formerly the dividing line between Asia and Siberia, area chain of low mountains, the highest peaks reaching only a little over 5000 ft. The country has been much eroded and the mountains now appear as rounded hills. In the central and northern parts turf swamps abound. The range is covered with forests except at the extreme southern end. The trees are mostly pine. Birch grows on cut-over areas, but never to large size. The rivers are small or the fall is slight, so no large water powers are available. A series of rivers with a north and south course, and which are navigable for long distances, furnish cheap transportation during the summer months. Railroad communications are very insufficient. The first active exploitation of the mineral wealth was initiated by Peter the Great, who sought iron and copper for use in his wars against the Swedes. He selected a blacksmith named Demidoff to supervise operations and gave him rights to most of the Ural and to the Altai. The Nijni Tagil Estates are still in the possession of the Demidoff family. The original large grant was subsequently subdivided through inheritance and marriage, but the Ural is still a country of very large estates, some of them held as leases only and some of them by actual ownership.

Jan 6, 1919

By Bernard Greifer, Walter Rose

The purpose of this note is to call attention to a source of difficulty which can be responsible for inaccurate estimates of wetting liquid pressure gradients in mixture flow experiments of the Hassler1 type. It has been our experience occasionally to observe what were indicated to be negative pressure gradients, and these were regarded as anomalous in the sense that physically they seemed to contradict the requirement that the flux be in the direction of the potential field. At first it was thought that our scheme of assembling barriers and core sample led to such asymmetry in the distribution of isobars that the manometric leads at each end of the core were responding to internal pressures (within the core sample) which could be either positive or negative with respect to each other, and which in fact might tend to reflect on different effective core lengths in an unpredictable fashion as the wetting liquid saturation was changed. However, no compelling evidence of this possibility has been established. In addition, we were cognizant of the requirements to be satisfied in selecting manometric instrumentation to minimize the delay in response of the manometer to the differential pressures being measured, and were thus assured that our observations of anomalous pressure gradients could not be explained by faulty instrumentation. What we suggest is that if a leak sink occurs in the fluid lines connecting the core to either side of the differential manometer, errors exceeding 100 per cent may result in the estimation of wetting liquid pressure gradient, even though the leak is of such small magnitude that its existence would tend to be obscured by evaporation effects. This is because in a system with leaks at the specified places, the manometer rec- ords at steady state the pressure drop across the manometer barrier elements in addition to the pressure drop across the core sample. This possibility will be illustrated below analytically and by numerical example for the special case where the leak occurs on the high presure side of the core, since we are especially desirous to explain the significance of our observations of the so-called negative pressure gradients. It will be indicated, however, that leak sinks on the low pressure side of the core can account for observations of anomalously high values of pressure gradient, and that multiple leaks on both sides of the core can provide for some compensation so that the errors in pressure estimation are reduced. However, the major point to be emphasized is the fact that the impractical-ity of detecting the small leak sinks which give rise to the difficulties makes it a complicated task for the experimenter in a particular case to know with certainty that his estimation of pressure gradient lies within the limits of error which can be tolerated. Fig. 1 shows the electrical analog of the flow system we have employed in our studies. The inflow and outflow barriers. Rbl and Rb2, the manometer barriers, Rm1, and Rm2, and the core sample, Rc— for a particular fluid saturation and distribution— are all designated as resistance elements; the flowmeter is designated by an ammeter, A; the pressure source is designated by E; and the manometric device is designated by the voltmeter, V. Included in the circuit are the variable resistances, Rx and Ry, which may be regarded as the leak sinks, and which, in general, can vary in magnitude from zero (i.e., a large hole or shunt in the system) to infinity (i.e., no

Jan 1, 1950

By Jacques B. Wertz

Among the parameters to be considered in the continuous search for new base-metal deposits, there often is a stratigraphic controlling factor that seems instrumental in the localization of ore. In British Columbia, for instance, the Upper Triassic as well as Lower Jurassic volcanics mixed with sediments are a useful indication in the search for copper while, in some parts of Australia, rhyolite bodies seem to be the favorable indicator, and this always within the geosynclinal environment. In Arizona, this stratigraphic factor becomes highly significant and it will be shown here that a large number of ore deposits are to be located around the flanks of ancient calcareous basins or depressions, preferentially corresponding to a certain optimum thickness as revealed by isopachs. The Martin limestone, of Devonian age, is already known for its basal O'Carroll bed which coincides with mineralization at places, and this is a relatively minor control. However, several limestone basins outlined by isopachs are in reality of greater importance as they localize mining districts. Indeed, most mines are found to coincide with a specific thickness of limestone while occurring simultaneously close to major, regional fracture intersections. The regional fractures in question were interpolated and extrapolated from known, important fault expressions, integrating quite well with the existing geology and further confirmed by minor criteria such as contacts, igneous plugs, axes of elongation of batholiths, dikes, etc. Although elements of subjectivity remain, this grid of fractures can be used quite successfully as a working hypothesis in the search for ore. Results of the present study which superposes major structural

Jan 1, 1971

By M. D. Curran

AS applied to coal, the term processing is subject to many interpretations. To some it means preparation of coal for the market by mechanical means such as crushing, sizing, washing, or treating with oil or chemicals to eliminate dust or improve combustion quality. To others it means conversion of the coal to other commodities as in carbonization to produce coke and by- products, or to liquids by application of the hydrogenation process. I prefer to classify the various forms of mechanical treatment under the heading of beneficiation and apply the term processing to those methods of treatment that destroy the coal sub- stance through distillation or hydrogenation.

Jan 1, 1939

By D. B. McGilvra

ANY mining operation in the Altiplano of the Andean range presents problems and imposes obligations on the mining company not usually met with in the United States. The Aguilar mine is in a sparsely populated, semiarid region, 50 km by road from the Argentine State railroad station of Tres Cruces, Jujuy, Argentina. In starting an operation in such a location it becomes necessary for the mining company to prepare first for the needs of the required force of workmen and their families. This program calls for houses, schools, hotels, water, electric power, laundries, post offices, police

Jan 1, 1947

By F. R. Van Horn

WALLACE MCKEEHAN, Douglas, Ariz. (communication to the Secretary*).-In going over this report, which I have done very carefully, I find that the summary as composed deals with the various problems almost entirely from the employer's standpoint and that practically no consideration is given to the employee's point of view. An experience of 3 ½ years as safety inspector, and almost 30 years as workman-and official, has convinced me that any plan for the betterment of working conditions which will achieve any degree of success must give the workmen their share of responsibility and allow them full participation. The company may finance and direct the movement, but its ultimate success depends upon the support given by the workmen. The cooperation of the men doing the actual work is so essential that all writers insist that this must be secured, but they do not agree as to how this can best be done.

Jan 4, 1917

By W. J. West, T. D. Mueller, J. E. Warren

The authors have presented valuable information on the influence of the interfacial tension and the contact angle on the recovery efficiency of the waterdrive process. It is considered, however, that the following points deserve a closer examination. 1. As pointed out by Wyllie and Spangler1 the displacement pressure PD i.e. the pressure required to initiate the displacement of the wetting phase from the core, is a measure of the maximum pore diameter dmax. If the capillary pressure Pe as a function of the wetting

Jan 1, 1956

Jan 1, 1928

By George F. Sowers

THE geophysical methods of exploration employed so extensively in mining and petroleum investigations are now being used in civil engineering. Requirements differ from those of mineral ex- ploration and therefore modified techniques have been developed. The civil engineer is primarily interested in the uppermost soil and rock strata. In highway engineering the materials affecting design and construction may be found within 15 or 20 ft of ground surface, and data on soils and rocks is seldom needed for more than a depth of 100 ft even for the heaviest structures.

Jan 1, 1954

By M. D. Cooper

UNDERGRADUATES in mining engineering may be prepared for work by giving them sound instruction in the courses generally considered essential to the profession. The industry is not deeply concerned about the details of those courses. The average man in the coal industry does not wish to insist upon a rigid program. Therefore, he differs little from those in the teaching profession who evidently are not unanimous in their opinions, or all college catalogs would be alike. For the good of the profession, it is just as well that there should be differences in regard to details. It appears that students graduating in mining engineering from the accredited institutions receive similar instruction. It is taken for granted that the graduate will have a good understanding of English, mathematics, mechanics, electricity, chemistry, physics, geology, and surveying, in addition to his major courses in mining. Somewhat belatedly, industry hopes he will have had at least an introduction to the subject of labor relations, the importance of which is only too clear at present. The coal industry expects, of course, that students in mining engineering will be taught the strictly mining subjects by men who have had practical experience in the mines and who keep themselves well informed in regard to current methods. While the undergraduate is subject to the control of members of the teaching profession, industry expects him to be trained in certain ways that are not a part of his textbooks, but can be made an inseparable part of his development by the skillful supervision of his teachers. Of the desired characteristics, dependability is of the utmost importance. Probably most employers would overlook certain short-comings if the young graduate demonstrated that he was thoroughly dependable. If he always appeared at the right place at the right time with the proper equipment, he would soon be well established as a welcome member of his organization. The graduate who gets a reputation for being undependable will have little opportunity for advancement. Closely allied to dependability is loyalty. Athletic teams and social groups in college tend to develop loyalty which may well be carried over into industry. This does not mean that the graduate has to be satisfied with customary practices. The average manager is glad to see the graduate make constructive criticism as long as he demonstrates his loyalty at the same time. It is important that his loyalty keeps him alert arid ready to take helpful action for the benefit of his organization, and especially to stand with it during times of stress. With or without an introduction to labor relations in college, the graduate is expected to develop ability in this most important field. Beginning with himself, he will find it essential to deal agreeably with his immediate associates. Getting along in friendly fashion with his own small group will be a great help as his responsibilities increase and he is required to deal with larger numbers of persons. On a higher scale, his interest in his community may grow at the same time by voluntary work in any one of a great number of useful activities. Industry expects the graduate engineer to be a mature man at the time he gets his first job. Supposing that he has better than average intelligence, industry expects him to continue to grow intellectually and to fit himself for responsible jobs when they are offered to him. For this reason, employers are apt to look over his college record to see what he did that would indicate his fitness for leadership. There is interest in knowing what he did beyond the requirements. As evidence of his mental growth, it is expected that the graduate will do independent thinking; that he will not take too much for granted. When he reads a report, he should develop the ability to see whether the subject is new or whether it is just a description of an old method that has been superseded by something better. For the same reason, the graduate should be able to accept conditions that have been arrived at by sound experience rather than cling to something else that seems better in theory. In this connection, it may be remarked that the ability to operate successfully a personal budget will be noteworthy, as it may be assumed that a man who knows how to conduct his own affairs will be prepared to assume the larger responsibilities of industry. Membership in AIME will indicate to the employer that the graduate is interested in the mining industry as a whole. Therefore, it is good evidence of something more than a local outlook. Quite apart from college training and mental ability, the newly employed graduate will be expected to be willing to do hard manual labor for a time. This will give him an understanding of the actual conditions of work done by those he supervises later. He will gain their confidence and be able to see that the work is carried on in a safe and efficient manner. Part of this experience may be acquired in his summer vacations during his undergraduate career. Such work would make a favorable impression on a prospective employer, especially if the graduate showed a willingness to continue it until he was prepared for something better. To summarize, the man in authority in the coal industry will not quarrel with the professor of mining engineering over details of curriculum. He will be pleased if the school sends him graduates who possess a good foundation in the courses studied, and who may be depended upon to do their work faithfully and intelligently. Such men will be ready when the time comes to assume their places as leaders of an essential industry.

Jan 1, 1951

By M. D. Cooper

UNDERGRADUATES in mining engineering may be prepared for work by giving them sound instruction in the courses generally considered essential to the profession. The industry is not deeply concerned about the details of those courses. The average man in the coal industry does not wish to insist upon a rigid program. Therefore, he differs little from those in the teaching profession who evidently are not unanimous in their opinions, or all college catalogs would be alike. For the good of the profession, it is just as well that there should be differences in regard to details. It appears that students graduating in mining engineering from the accredited institutions receive similar instruction. It is taken for granted that the graduate will have a good understanding of English, mathematics, mechanics, electricity, chemistry, physics, geology, and surveying, in addition to his major courses in mining. Somewhat belatedly, industry hopes he will have had at least an introduction to the subject of labor relations, the importance of which is only too clear at present. The coal industry expects, of course, that students in mining engineering will be taught the strictly mining subjects by men who have had practical experience in the mines and who keep themselves well informed in regard to current methods. While the undergraduate is subject to the control of members of the teaching profession, industry expects him to be trained in certain ways that are not a part of his textbooks, but can be made an inseparable part of his development by the skillful supervision of his teachers. Of the desired characteristics, dependability is of the utmost importance. Probably most employers would overlook certain short-comings if the young graduate demonstrated that he was thoroughly dependable. If he always appeared at the right place at the right time with the proper equipment, he would soon be well established as a welcome member of his organization. The graduate who gets a reputation for being undependable will have little opportunity for advancement. Closely allied to dependability is loyalty. Athletic teams and social groups in college tend to develop loyalty which may well be carried over into industry. This does not mean that the graduate has to be satisfied with customary practices. The average manager is glad to see the graduate make constructive criticism as long as he demonstrates his loyalty at the same time. It is important that his loyalty keeps him alert arid ready to take helpful action for the benefit of his organization, and especially to stand with it during times of stress. With or without an introduction to labor relations in college, the graduate is expected to develop ability in this most important field. Beginning with himself, he will find it essential to deal agreeably with his immediate associates. Getting along in friendly fashion with his own small group will be a great help as his responsibilities increase and he is required to deal with larger numbers of persons. On a higher scale, his interest in his community may grow at the same time by voluntary work in any one of a great number of useful activities. Industry expects the graduate engineer to be a mature man at the time he gets his first job. Supposing that he has better than average intelligence, industry expects him to continue to grow intellectually and to fit himself for responsible jobs when they are offered to him. For this reason, employers are apt to look over his college record to see what he did that would indicate his fitness for leadership. There is interest in knowing what he did beyond the requirements. As evidence of his mental growth, it is expected that the graduate will do independent thinking; that he will not take too much for granted. When he reads a report, he should develop the ability to see whether the subject is new or whether it is just a description of an old method that has been superseded by something better. For the same reason, the graduate should be able to accept conditions that have been arrived at by sound experience rather than cling to something else that seems better in theory. In this connection, it may be remarked that the ability to operate successfully a personal budget will be noteworthy, as it may be assumed that a man who knows how to conduct his own affairs will be prepared to assume the larger responsibilities of industry. Membership in AIME will indicate to the employer that the graduate is interested in the mining industry as a whole. Therefore, it is good evidence of something more than a local outlook. Quite apart from college training and mental ability, the newly employed graduate will be expected to be willing to do hard manual labor for a time. This will give him an understanding of the actual conditions of work done by those he supervises later. He will gain their confidence and be able to see that the work is carried on in a safe and efficient manner. Part of this experience may be acquired in his summer vacations during his undergraduate career. Such work would make a favorable impression on a prospective employer, especially if the graduate showed a willingness to continue it until he was prepared for something better. To summarize, the man in authority in the coal industry will not quarrel with the professor of mining engineering over details of curriculum. He will be pleased if the school sends him graduates who possess a good foundation in the courses studied, and who may be depended upon to do their work faithfully and intelligently. Such men will be ready when the time comes to assume their places as leaders of an essential industry.

Jan 1, 1951

By R. Dawson Hall

WHAT are the opportunities for the services of engineers in the coal mines? The best answer perhaps can be made by detailing the present lines of development in the bituminous coal mining regions. They are just at the beginning of a period that can be conservatively termed revolutionary. A few glimpses of new possibilities in economic mining that will reduce the cost of bituminous coal at the mines by at least one half have convinced almost everyone that a change must shortly come about. The cost of housing has become such a burden, especially in mountainous regions, that development which demands the hiring of more men and constructing more houses would not be profitable. The introduction of mechanical aids to mining, transportation and dumping suggests a way of obtaining a large tonnage with the same or a smaller number of men with no further house construction. At the same time the restriction of immigration has made it increasingly difficult to obtain men inured to hard labor. Modern civilization is not productive of muscular energy and at the same time it provides men who are not indisposed to the use of the mental effort required to direct the physical forces now available for the replacement of such energy.

Jan 1, 1924

Jan 1, 1940

Jan 1, 1940

By Fred J. Wright

ORIGINALLY, mining machines were actuated by purely mechanical mechanisms comprising cams, levers and gear trains, which became more and more complex as demands were made for additional operations that would increase mine tonnage. To simplify these intricate machines, development engineers began utilizing the principles of high-pressure hydraulics long employed for the control of various machine tools. The resulting specificially developed hydraulic systems are now literally the heart of the mining machine. During World War No. 2, very little fundamental change in design was made in existing mining machines, but because of the recognition of the merits of hydraulic application to the machines of war, it is reasonably certain that hydraulics will be applied to mining machines in the future to a much greater extent. This potential future indicates that a more thorough knowledge of hydraulics and its maintenance must be incorporated in mine operation. Contamination of Oil Maintenance of high-pressure hydraulic equipment varies considerably with respect to mine practice and conditions. The success or failure is largely dependent upon the hydraulic fluid and its care. Since all successful hydraulic systems have been designed around the use of mineral oil as the fluid, a complete analysis of this prime factor should be made to make clear the requirements of the fluid in a hydraulic system. Contamination of Oil Manufacturers of mining machinery usually have specified an S.A.E. rating or viscosity index of the, proper mineral oil for use with their respective machines without considering the fact that many oils will meet these specifications but will not give the desired life or efficient operation. Hydraulic fluid should be specified as a good grade of mineral oil, such as turbine oil, having rust and oxidation resistance. It must have high chemical stability, high lubricity, and proper viscosity. These factors will minimize maintenance costs by reducing wear and the consequent replacement of parts, and at the same time will lower costs for the oil by extending its life. Bulk purchases of oil should be limited to small sealed containers provided with a proper pouring spout, thus reducing the possibility of contamination of the oil before it reaches the mining machine. The introduction of foreign matter, such as sand, water, coal dust and residue oil left in filling containers, will cause untold damage and maintenance expense. Sand, being one of the best natural abrasives, will soon wear the close tolerances of the various hydraulic mechanisms to an extent that will necessitate complete replacement. Water is considered normally insoluble in oil, but because of the churning action of a hydraulic system water is broken down to particles so small that they remain in suspension. This suspension is known as

Jan 1, 1946