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By John Birkinbine

The iron industry of the United States, and, in fact, of the world, was established with charcoal as fuel. Long before the value of mineral coal was recognized, the carbonization of wood was carried on in connection with various metallurgical processes, but at the present time we look upon establishments using charcoal as the remnant of a former greatness, and are apt to sympathize with the operators because they have no other fuel to depend upon. In the iron

Jan 1, 1883

By Edwin A. Sperry

In 1892 I tested an ore, which was peculiarly difficult to treat, on several concentrators then in general use, including t,he Frue-vanner, the Luhrig table and the Cornish buddle. Owing to the character of the ore it had to be crushed- to a very fine state of division, and the results obtained were far from satisfactory; a large proportion of the values was lost in the slimes, which indicated the necessity of a very careful sizing before dressing. Even after reworking some of the slime-tailings, the results, in my opinion, were not as good aa those which might be obtained on a table designed more especially for the handling of slime. Although the subject of slime-concentration has occupied the attention of many engineers who have threshed the field quite thoroughly, the results obtained in my work led to a careful

Jan 1, 1904

By Virgil R. D. Kirkham

RECONNAISSANCE of a part of southeastern Idaho and small strip of western Wyoming lying between longitudes 111° and 111° and 45' W., and latitudes 43° and 43° and 30' N., comprising an area of approximately 1330 sq. mi., was undertaken during the summer of 1923 for the collection of data regarding the oil possibilities of the region. TOPOGRAPHY, SETTLEMENT, AND ACCESSIBILITY The entire area lies within the upper Snake River drainage basin. Snake River flows through the northeastern and eastern part of the area in a northwesterly direction. The entire drainage system has been controlled by the structure of the sedimentary beds in the area, which exhibit numerous alternations of hard and soft strata with consequent unequal erosion. The headwaters of the most important streams, as well as many others, flow in a northwesterly or southeasterly direction along

Jan 1, 1925

By J. J. Pavlica, I. Iwasaki

Grinding in steel milk adversely affects the flotation removal of pyrrhotite from magnetite ores. To elucidate the effect of grinding media on the floatability of pyrrhotite, rest potential and galmic current measurements were made on electrode combinations of pyrrhotite-mild steel and pvhotite- stainless steel. Galvanic contact of pyrrhotite with mild steel increased the rate of surface reactions on pyrrhotite in air-exposed and oxygenated solutions. It was postulated that the formation of an iron hydroxide coating on the pyrrhotite adversely affected its floatability. Its formation was minimal when pyrrhotite was contacted with stainless steel. Fine magnetite particles cawed slime coating on pyrrhotite surfaces by magnetic interaction and impaired the flotation of pyrrhotite.

Jan 1, 1983

Brushy Creek mine is located near the center of a linear, 40 mile long belt of mineralization that extends south from St. Joe Minerals Corp.'s Viburnum division. The mine area includes a segment of 5.4 miles long of this new mining region along which eight mines are presently operating. The geology of the area is relatively simple; the rock formations have not been disturbed through folding or extensive faulting.

Jan 7, 1973

By William T. Barrett, James E. Lawver, James L. Wright

One of the problems facing both the designer and the user of magnetic separators is the evaluation of the body forces acting on particles in the magnetic field of the separator. Perhaps the most elegant method of evaluating the body force associated with a drum-type magnetic separator is that recently suggested by W. F. Brown.' Brown measures the radial component of the field intensity 1/2 in. from the drum surface and fits a Fourier series in the angle about the drum axis (Fig. 1). Once the coefficients of the series are known, it is then possible to calculate the values of the radial and angular

Jan 1, 1971

By Oliver C. Ralston, James Norman

DIATOMACEOUS earth occurs in deposits widely distributed throughout the nation. The chief producing areas are in the Western States, where many high-grade deposits are known. Eastern deposits of diatomite are unsatisfactory for many purposes either because of impurity or because of the extremely fine particle size. Eastern users of diatomite, on the whole, must pay for transportation of the material from the west coast. The freight rate is necessarily high because of the great bulk of the diatomite. A satisfactory process of purifying the diatomaceous earths of Maryland and Virginia, which are unsuited for wide use only because of impurities, should be of value to eastern users. In the past, benefication of diatomite by wet processes has been limited to classification or sedimentation for the removal of sand from diatoms. Calcination with salt is used to produce a white diatomite when iron is present in the impurities, and small amounts of clay are rendered inactive in the process. No treatment has been developed whereby a large proportion of clay can be removed from a low-grade diatomaceous earth to give a diatomite of very high purity. In August 1937 the Federal Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with Dr. R. C. Williams, of Baltimore, undertook the problem of purifying low-grade Maryland diatomite by froth flotation. Work was done at the Eastern Experiment Station, College Park. Unless otherwise stated, the crude diatomite used was from the Patuxent River deposits near Dunkirk. This material, consisting of roughly one-third each of clay, quartz sand and diatoms, was representative of the usual low-grade marine diatomite found in the Coastal Plain Miocene beds of Maryland and Virginia and sporadically in other Atlantic coast states. As received, it contained 50 to 60 per cent moisture and probably had been wet since its formation.

Jan 1, 1940

New equipment for seabed sampling, presently at the prototype stage, operates on the principle of diamond core drilling with wire line core barrels and is designed to drill cores from the seabed at depths down to 200 m with a continuous recovery of cores from an attendant vessel. The machine operates on the seabed by remote control from a console on the vessel. Neither installation nor operation requires the use of divers. Principal Applications Principal areas of application for the drill which is dubbed Maricor include investigation drilling in the continental shelf, mapping geological conditions before large drilling platforms are installed and exploring proposed undersea tunnel routes.

Jan 11, 1973

ON FEBRUARY 13, 1953 the Miami Copper Company signed a contract with the United States Government, through the Defense Materials Procurement Agency, whereby it under- took, with a base price of 27.359 per lb (subject to escalation based on wage scales and wholesale-price indices), to exploit a new ore body in its mine in Gila County, Arizona. Recoverable ore was estimated at 23,000,000 tons, averaging about 0.677 per cent copper. Moreover, the proportion of oxidized copper, difficult to recover by flotation concentrating, was so high that an average net recovery of only ten pounds per ton (0.5 per cent) was expected. The company proposed to mine the ore by the underground method known as undercut block-caving. Unfortunately the ore body, as has been true of all Miami's ore bodies, lay so deeply buried that no possibility existed of adopting opencut mining as has been done in recent years at Miami's neighbors, Ray and Inspiration. Probably the most distinctive characteristic of Miami's operations has been the extent to which it has developed and improved methods and equipment for underground mining. True, necessity was a potent stimulant, because its available ores since 1926 have been exceptionally low-grade; so, if the enterprise were to survive, it was necessary to keep costs at the minimum. This fact does not detract, however, in any way from the remarkable achievements of Miami engineers in conducting efficient and low-cost underground mining.

Jan 1, 1957

By T. A. Rickard

The lodes of Cripple Creek, Colo., partake of the composition of the geological formation which they traverse. The prevailing rocks are andesitic breccia, lying upon granite, and also bodies of phonolite, trachytic phonolite, nepheline-basalt, etc., penetrating both the granite and the breccia. At Kalgoorlie, in West Australia, the prevailing rock is schistose, and has not been certainly identified, though microscopic sections indicate the probability that it was originally an acid eruptive. The lodes are essentially bands, more highly schistose than the encasing rock, and impregnated to a notable degree with disseminated pyrites and secondary calcite. During 1899 Cripple Creek produced 425,590 tons of ore, having a gross value of $15,658,254; during the same period the output of Kalgoorlie was 467,048 tons, valued at $17,724,587. In chemical composition, the ores at Cripple Creek and Kalgoorlie, respectively, present differences equally interesting to the petrographer and the metallurgist. In both cases we have to deal with altered eruptives as the matrix of the ore; but the much older rock of Kalgoorlie has undergone more decompo-

Jan 1, 1901

By Luis Toron, Salvador Cortes-Obregon

THE Oaxaca coal fields, shown in Fig. 1, are located in the Alta Mixteca region in the states of Oaxaca, Puebla, and Guerrero. Known outcrops are scattered over 3125 square miles. It is probable that further exploration will reveal a more extensive area of deposits. The region is of great importance to Mexico, as at present the only sources of coal are the fields near the U. S. border. Steel mills are also located in the North, and finished products must travel 600 to 800 miles to the area of consumption in central Mexico. The oaxaca coal, only 120 miles south of Mexico, D.F., lies close to several iron ore deposits. If this

Jan 1, 1955

By C. V. Millikan

Temperature measurement in wells is an old practice and geothermal gradients have been of interest to geologists for many years.le2 Their application to the operation of oil wells is a more recent practice. It has long been recognized that temperature anomalies occur in drilling and producing wells but thermometers that could obtain a satisfactory record of the anomalies were not available. The normal geothermal gradient is con-sidered as being about one degree Fahren-heit for each 60 ft. of depth.4 This "nor-mal " gradient varies in different areas, but whatever it may be in an area there is little variation from the surface to as deep as the : drill penetrates. The normal gradient is appreciably changed by gas expanding ; from the reservoir into the borehole or by the movement of fluid through a borehole : while drilling, producing, or circulating. It is the resulting anomalies and abnormal gradients from which conditions in wells can be interpreted. Some of the applications of such interpretations are locating the position of oil or gas sands, permeable strata in a reservoir zone, gas-oil contact, source of water, casing leaks, and the top of cement behind casing. Thermometers A thermometer for use in wells must be sensitive and have a low thermal lag. The sensitivity should permit recording 0.2OF. or less for differential temperatures although the actual temperature need not be more accurate than 1°F. The thermal lag should be as low as rugged construction will permit in order to allow surveys to be made in a minimum of time. Of the several kinds of thermometers, these requirements are most easily obtained with the vapor-pressure, expansion, and electric-resistance types. Thermometers for use in wells may be self-contained—that is, the complete instrument is lowered into the well and a record made of the temperature—or the thermal element only may be lowered into the well and the temperature recorded at the surface. The vapor-pressure and expansion types are more adaptable for a self-contained instrument while the electric-resistance thermometer is more suitable for surface recording of temperatures. The self-contained instrument can be run against high pressure on a single wire line with only one operator required. The instrument and its hoisting equipment is easily portable and can be mounted on a small car. The disadvantages are a somewhat greater thermal lag and the necessity of completing a run before any temperature or temperature anomaly is known. A surface-recording thermometer has the advantage of being somewhat more sensitive and of having a lower thermal lag. The Operator can see what anomalies are encountered and can immediately change the running conditions of the instrument or the well conditions in order to obtain the most

Jan 1, 1941

By C. V. Millikan

Temperature measurement in wells is an old practice and geothermal gradients have been of interest to geologists for many years.le2 Their application to the operation of oil wells is a more recent practice. It has long been recognized that temperature anomalies occur in drilling and producing wells but thermometers that could obtain a satisfactory record of the anomalies were not available. The normal geothermal gradient is con-sidered as being about one degree Fahren-heit for each 60 ft. of depth.4 This "nor-mal " gradient varies in different areas, but whatever it may be in an area there is little variation from the surface to as deep as the : drill penetrates. The normal gradient is appreciably changed by gas expanding ; from the reservoir into the borehole or by the movement of fluid through a borehole : while drilling, producing, or circulating. It is the resulting anomalies and abnormal gradients from which conditions in wells can be interpreted. Some of the applications of such interpretations are locating the position of oil or gas sands, permeable strata in a reservoir zone, gas-oil contact, source of water, casing leaks, and the top of cement behind casing. Thermometers A thermometer for use in wells must be sensitive and have a low thermal lag. The sensitivity should permit recording 0.2OF. or less for differential temperatures although the actual temperature need not be more accurate than 1°F. The thermal lag should be as low as rugged construction will permit in order to allow surveys to be made in a minimum of time. Of the several kinds of thermometers, these requirements are most easily obtained with the vapor-pressure, expansion, and electric-resistance types. Thermometers for use in wells may be self-contained—that is, the complete instrument is lowered into the well and a record made of the temperature—or the thermal element only may be lowered into the well and the temperature recorded at the surface. The vapor-pressure and expansion types are more adaptable for a self-contained instrument while the electric-resistance thermometer is more suitable for surface recording of temperatures. The self-contained instrument can be run against high pressure on a single wire line with only one operator required. The instrument and its hoisting equipment is easily portable and can be mounted on a small car. The disadvantages are a somewhat greater thermal lag and the necessity of completing a run before any temperature or temperature anomaly is known. A surface-recording thermometer has the advantage of being somewhat more sensitive and of having a lower thermal lag. The Operator can see what anomalies are encountered and can immediately change the running conditions of the instrument or the well conditions in order to obtain the most

Jan 1, 1941

By E. Gilpin

Any estimate of the economic mineral value of an unvisited district is to the mining engineer largely a comparative one. If he knows that certain minerals characterize any given geological horizon he naturally draws upon his experience of the same ores as met by him cinder similar geological conditions. And if he has not had the personal experience, the investigation of the geology of a similar district as given in a trustworthy report enables him to lay a fair basis for conclusions. In a general way these conclusions are of value, and while they pronounce on the possible mineral fecundity of a given district, they

Jan 1, 1890

By C. Williams, D. V. Carter

During 1943 five oil fields and two gas-condensate fields were discovered in the East and East Central Texas district. The New Hope field, discovered by Tide Water-Seaboard in Franklin County, is the most important oil discovery since the Hawkins field in 1940. At the close of the year two oil sands were producing and two additional oil sands were being tested. The gas-condensate fields of Appleby in Nacog-doches County and the Stewards Mill field in Freestone County had only one producing well each. The Carthage field was extended 3 miles north and 4 miles west. Another well that was testing at the year end indicated a probable eastward extension of several miles. The Quitman field, in Wood County, was the most active from the standpoint of drilling operations. Approximately 48 wells were complcted during the year. The second and third most active fields were Hawkins field, Wood County, and Kildare field, Cass County, respectively. Wartime restrictions of material, together with manpower shortage and Federal spacing regulations, reduced the number of oil and gas-well completions from 265 in I942 to 171 in 1943. This represents a drop of 35 percent, or approximately 1/3, enough to replace the 531 producing wells abandoned in the district during the year. No changes were made in the price of crude oil in the district in 1943. The district produced 177,652,940 bbl. of condensate and oil during 1943. This represents an increase of approximately 11 per cent compared with the previous year. The East Texas field, which is the largest and most important field in the district, had an annual production of 128,568,647 bbl. of oil, which is approximately 6.5 per cent more than the previous year, and represents 72 per cent of the district's production of condensate and oil for the year. The district had an estimated basic daily allowable of approximately 509,000 bbl. of oil on Dec. 31, 1943. The entire district produced approximately 30 pcr cent of the state's production for the year 1943. The Hawkins field, Wood County, was operated 271 days during the year and with an average daily production of approximately 52,488 bbl. for the year. This field, which is the second largest in the district, produced 14,224,164 bbl, of oil during the year. Changes in annual production in certain fields in the district can be attributed to their ability to produce at higher rates, the demand, and transportation facilities in the war effort. The East Texas field showed an over-all decrease in reservoir pressure of 8.30 lb. during the year. Indications were that through the first quarter of 1944 the return of salt water to the reservoir was having a beneficial effect. It is hoped that, as more and more water is returned to the reser-

Jan 1, 1944

By D. V. Carter, C. Williams

During 1943 five oil fields and two gas-condensate fields were discovered in the East and East Central Texas district. The New Hope field, discovered by Tide Water-Seaboard in Franklin County, is the most important oil discovery since the Hawkins field in 1940. At the close of the year two oil sands were producing and two additional oil sands were being tested. The gas-condensate fields of Appleby in Nacog-doches County and the Stewards Mill field in Freestone County had only one producing well each. The Carthage field was extended 3 miles north and 4 miles west. Another well that was testing at the year end indicated a probable eastward extension of several miles. The Quitman field, in Wood County, was the most active from the standpoint of drilling operations. Approximately 48 wells were complcted during the year. The second and third most active fields were Hawkins field, Wood County, and Kildare field, Cass County, respectively. Wartime restrictions of material, together with manpower shortage and Federal spacing regulations, reduced the number of oil and gas-well completions from 265 in I942 to 171 in 1943. This represents a drop of 35 percent, or approximately 1/3, enough to replace the 531 producing wells abandoned in the district during the year. No changes were made in the price of crude oil in the district in 1943. The district produced 177,652,940 bbl. of condensate and oil during 1943. This represents an increase of approximately 11 per cent compared with the previous year. The East Texas field, which is the largest and most important field in the district, had an annual production of 128,568,647 bbl. of oil, which is approximately 6.5 per cent more than the previous year, and represents 72 per cent of the district's production of condensate and oil for the year. The district had an estimated basic daily allowable of approximately 509,000 bbl. of oil on Dec. 31, 1943. The entire district produced approximately 30 pcr cent of the state's production for the year 1943. The Hawkins field, Wood County, was operated 271 days during the year and with an average daily production of approximately 52,488 bbl. for the year. This field, which is the second largest in the district, produced 14,224,164 bbl, of oil during the year. Changes in annual production in certain fields in the district can be attributed to their ability to produce at higher rates, the demand, and transportation facilities in the war effort. The East Texas field showed an over-all decrease in reservoir pressure of 8.30 lb. during the year. Indications were that through the first quarter of 1944 the return of salt water to the reservoir was having a beneficial effect. It is hoped that, as more and more water is returned to the reser-

Jan 1, 1944

By Sebastian Paul Musco

The importance of the recovery of precious metals, specifically platinum group metals, was recently expressed by Robert McNamara, former head of the World Bank, who stated that the United States should stockpile strategic metals. More than 90% of the platinum metals are imported into the United States from South Africa and Russia. Mr. McNamara's concern is based on the possibility of a disruption of obtaining these metals due to any racial unrest in South Africa and a renewal of the Cold War with Russia. The United States has a platinum mine from coast to coast. Since 1974, the automotive industry has consumed 3 million ounces of platinum and palladium, and the recovery of these metals from auto catalyst converters is estimated to be 300,000 ounces of platinum per year. This would make the United States the 4th largest producer in the world.

Jan 1, 1984

NAME AND OBJECT. SEc. 1. This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York ; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining Engineers; and its objects are such as are stated in its Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE II. MEMBERS. SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise four classes, namely 1. Members ; 2. Honorary Members ; 3. Associates ; 4. Junior Members. All members shall be equally entitled to the privileges of membership, except¬ing that Honorary Members, Junior Members, and Members and Associates whose residences shall be outside of the United States, Mexico, and Canada shall not be entitled to vote. Members and Associates residing within the United States of America, Mexico, and Canada, and not in arrears for dues, shall be entitled to vote in person at the meetings of the Institute, or, as hereinafter provided for, by letter ballot. SEC. 2. The following classes of persons shall be eligible for membership in the Institute, namely : as Members, all professional mining . engineers, geologists, metallurgists, or chemists, and all persons actively engaged in mining and metal¬lurgical engineering, geology, or chemistry ; as Associates, all persons desirous of being connected with the Institute who in the opinion of the Board of Directors are suitable.

Jan 1, 1923

Undoubtedly other members have given their lives in the Service of the United States and the Allies during the past four years, but the following biographical notices are all that have reached us as yet. Lewis Newton Bailey Lewis Newton Bailey died of pneumonia at Camp Merritt, N. J., Apr. 30, 1918, at the age of 34 years. He was Master Engineer, Senior Grade, in the Fourth Regiment, U. S. Engineers, and although he was offered a commission as First Lieutenant shortly after enlisting, he preferred not to accept it until he had reached France. By those who knew him well, this lack of eagerness for promotion will be recognized as consistent with his whole character. Mr. Bailey was born at San Diego, Cal., May 28,1884, and graduated from the University of California, College of Mines, in 1906. He joined the American Institute of Mining Engineers in 1916. During 1904 he was employed at the cyanide plant of the Buckeye mines, Forest Hills, Cal. In the autumn of 1909 he went to the Coeur d'Alene District, Idaho, and was first employed on construction work of the Bunker Hill & Sullivan Mining & Concentrating Co'., with a short intermission at the Hercules mill, after which. he was sampler and assayer for the Bunker Hill & Sullivan Co. until May, 1910, when he was obliged to return to California to attend to family interests. Returning to the Coeur d'Alene district in November, 1911, he was given charge of remodelling and operating the mill of the Coeur d'Alene Development Co., treating the output of the Ontario mine; this work he performed with credit and complete success. In December, 1914, he returned to the Bunker Hill & Sullivan Co., as assistant metallurgist and mill superintendent, his work consisting mainly in the testing and improvement of concentrator practice, which he continued with great credit until August, 1915, when family considerations required that he again return to the home of his parents at San Diego. Mr. Bailey was characterized by energy, both physical and mental, by devotion to his friends, associates and employer. He was particularly successful in his relations with the men under him and, in fact, was thoroughly well likcd by everybody with whom he came in contact.

Jan 1, 1920

By W. E. Rice

The ceramic industry has to do with forming or molding articles of clay, and imparting to them their characteristic properties of permanence, strength and color by subjecting them to heat treatment in kilns. This heat treatment is commonly known as "firing" or "burning." The art of firing clay ware antedates the industrial use of coal; hence wood was the fuel first used, and the earliest kilns were built to burn wood. The majority of the clay ware produced today is fired in periodic kilns that are essentially enlarged structures similar to the earliest enclosed kilns; a kiln consists of a large chamber 16 to 32 ft. dia. (or rectangular) in which the ware is charged and fired either in direct contact with flame or hot gases from the fuel, or in saggers which shield the ware from direct contact with the gases. The fuel is burned in a number of small furnaces built in the thick wall that encloses the chamber; these furnaces are from 16 to 36 in. wide and from 3 to 5 ft. long; some of them have horizontal or sloping grates, but many have no grates; the last are called "dead-bottom" furnaces. The temperature necessary to mature the charge in the kiln varies for different clays; for some it is as low as 1800°, and for others as high as 2700" F. Wood was an ideal fuel for the low temperatures that were used in early kilns; it burns freely and produces a long, clean flame, which promotes uniform distribution of the heat in the kiln; it does not coke and so restrict the passage of air through the fuel bed; the ash does not melt in the fuel bed to form clinker; and the ash that is carried into the chamber and deposited on the charge does not contain iron and sulfur to discolor the clay. The extent of the ceramic industry now precludes the general use of wood in kilns, so that today this industry is one of the large users of bituminous coal, burning more than eight million tons annually in kilns. Manufacturing plants usually are at or near the source of clay, with deposits of coal suitable for kilns occurring near the clay. The cost of coal is the largest single item of expense in the manufacture of clay ware, and, because all coals are not equally suitable for the process, the careful selection of coal is important. In this selection the desidera-

Jan 1, 1932