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By Wade Edward Speer

The Hiddenite District of Alexander County, NC has produced some of the world?s finest large emeralds since the first one was discovered 134 years ago. In fact, North America?s largest emeralds come from the district, making this one of the continent?s most unique gem deposits. In addition to emeralds, the Hiddenite District is also famous as the discovery site for the rare spodumene mineral hiddenite, first identified in 1881. Nowhere else in the world do these two minerals naturally occur together. The emeralds are a unique color variety of beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18) with trace amounts of Cr+3 and V+3 substituting for Al+3. The hiddenite (LiAlSi2O6) crystals also exhibit emerald green color due to traces of chromium. Consisting of three large deposits and numerous prospects, the district encompasses an area of 10 km2 (4 sq miles) centered on the small town of Hiddenite. Operations at the Adams, Ellis and North American Emerald Mines properties have been productive at irregular intervals since the 1880s. Currently, only the North American Emerald Mines property is being mined on a regular basis. Recent activity there has exposed a 3-hm2 (7.4-acre) pit with depths of 25 m (82 ft) that provides the best exposures of unweathered bedrock seen in the district in more than 120 years. Although no official records exist, public and private data indicate that the production of the entire Hiddenite District from 1880 to 2007 is about 70,000 carats of emerald and 20,000 carats of hiddenite. The bulk of the emeralds came from the North American Emerald Mine property (NAEM, formerly known as the Rist Mine) where sustained mining replaced the previous sporadic prospecting in 2000.

Jan 1, 2009

By Georgios Kalamaras, Chiaia Dinu, Platania Paolo, Alessio Carlo, Giampiero Cirvegna, Claudio Santucci

The Project alignment initiates north of Pinerolo, along the State Road 23[S.S. 23] that is one of the principal arteries to the northwestern Alps where a number of Olympic events for the 2006 Winter Games will be held. The 3.5 km ring road bypasses the Porte habitat by traversing twice the Chisone River. It consists of the following principal structures [Figure 1]: San Martino bridge [130 m in four bays] Prarostino viaduct [130 m in four bays] Craviale tunnel [1055 m] Turinella bridge [a 50 m long bridge that connects the two tunnels] Turina tunnel [665 m] Malanaggio viaduct [350 m in 9 bays]. The road section is 13 m wide and is made up of two 3.75 m lanes, a hard shoulder [1.50 m wide] and a 1.25 m wide curb for each lane. The Project maximum velocity is 100 km/h.

Jan 1, 2005

By M. Nehdi

Deficient surface disposal systems of sulfidic mine waste often cause severe contamination of surface streams and groundwater reservoirs due to the oxidation of sulfide phases. The subsequent generation of leachates characterized by high acidity and elevated concentrations of toxic elements (commonly known as acid mine drainage) jeopardize the health of contiguous ecosystem. Stabilization/solidification (S/S) is recognized as a promising solution for treating such wastes. S/S processes generally mobilize alkaline and/or cementing materials/additives that act as neutralizing and/or binding agents. In the present research, industrial byproducts, namely, cement kiln dust (CKD) and Class C fly ash (FAC) have been used as candidate materials along with the partial addition of sulfate-resistant cement (SRC) in the S/S of polymetallic sulfidic mine tailings (MT). The effectiveness of S/S was assessed by comparing laboratory experimental values obtained from unconfined compressive strength, hydraulic conductivity and leaching propensity tests of S/S samples with regulatory standards for safe surface disposal of such wastes. Despite general regulatory compliance of compressive strength and hydraulic conductivity, some solidified/stabilized-cured matrices were found unable to provide the required immobilization of pollutants. Solidified/stabilized and 90-day cured mine tailings specimens made with composite binders containing (10% CKD + 10% FAC), (5% SRC + 15% FAC) and (5% SRC + 5% CKD + 10% FAC) significantly impaired the solubility of all contaminants investigated and proved successful in fixing metals within the matrix, in addition to achieving adequate unconfined compressive strength and hydraulic conductivity values, thus satisfying U.S. EPA regulations. Laboratory investigations revealed that, for polymetallic mining waste, leachate concentrations are the most critical factor in assessing the effectiveness of S/S technology.

Jan 1, 2008

This paper investigates the effects of solids concentration and the addition of Dispersant S40 on the flowability of original and ground limestone slurries. A rotational viscometer with a concentric cylinder geometry and a controlled-stress rheometer with a cone-and-plate geometry were used to characterize the rheological behaviors of limestone slurries. The rheological behavior of original limestone slurries (<100 µm) is transformed through different types of flows with increasing solids concentration. The use of Dispersant S40 can improve the slurry flowability by decreasing viscosity and eliminating Casson yield stress. It is therefore used as a grinding aid for the wet ultrafine grinding of limestone. The rheological behaviors of ground limestone slurries vary with grinding from a starting dilatant flow-ability to a resulting pseudoplastic one with an evident Casson yield stress in combination with a thixotropic character. The appearance of pseudoplastic flowability combining thixotropy is related to the fineness of a ground product and its specific surface area, which are both correlated to solids concentration and the additive amount of Dispersant S40. In addition, the accurate rheological characterization of time-dependent fluids is dependent on the instruments used and operation conditions.

Jan 1, 2007

By T. Umadevi, A. Pratap Singh, R. Sah, K. Abhishek

"It was possible to beneficiate a low-grade iron ore fines sample from Bellary-Hospet, Karnataka, India assaying 56% Fe, 9.1% SiO2 and 5.2% Al2O3 and produce two concentrates, namely, a sinter-grade fines concentrate (43.7% by weight), assaying 63.6% Fe, 2.6% SiO2 and 1.7% Al2O3, and a pellet-grade concentrate (30.7% by weight) assaying 64.7% Fe, 2.9% SiO2 and 1.7%Al2O3. Rejects (25.6% by weight) assayed 32.5% Fe, 27.9% SiO2 and 15.4% Al2O3. The mineralogical characterization indicated that the sample consisted of 69.5% ironbearing minerals (56% hematite, 7.5% martite and 6% goethite-limonite), 12.5% quartz and 15.2% clay, and the rest were minor minerals. Liberation size was found to be in the size range of 25 to 100 µm. The process flow sheet consists of jigs, spirals, grinding and low- and high-intensity magnetic separation of the deslimed feed. IntroductionJSW Steel Ltd is a 10-Mt/a integrated steel plant. To produce 10 Mt/a hot metal requires nearly 16 to 20 Mt/a iron ore fines. The fast depletion of highgrade iron ore fines, increased industrial demand and an increase in iron ore prices have necessitated the exploitation and use of low-grade iron ore fines in the steel-making process after beneficiation. Thus, the beneficiation of low-grade iron ores by removing the associated gangue minerals and enhancing their grade is essential. The use of these iron ore fines in sinter and pellet making has prompted the undertaking of systematic studies on low-grade iron ores.Finely disseminated low-grade iron ores with siliceous impurities have been upgraded by gravity, magnetic and flotation-based processes (Burt, 1994; Svoboda, 1987; Houot, 1983). The processing of low-grade Indian hematite ore containing high levels of alumina-bearing minerals as impurities present separation challenges and pose special problems in martite and magnetite, in association with quartz and clay as the gangue-forming minerals. Alumina is mainly contributed by clay (kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, alunite), lateritic material and gibbsite; some alumina occurs as solids in iron oxide minerals, namely, goethite and limonite. Silica is mainly contributed by quartz and the associated clay. achieving a high-grade concentrate (Pradip, 1994; Singh and Mehrotra, 2007). Hematite ore basically consists of varying amounts of hematite, goethite,"

Jan 1, 2015

By M. Fan

Froth flotation is the most widely-used method of separating fine coal, especially coal with coking properties. However, froth flotation is not efficient for treating ultrafine coal and coarse coal particles. Our previous fundamental test results demonstrated that cavitation-generated nanobubbles can significantly improve coal and phosphate flotation performance over a wide particle size range. In this study, the effect of nanobubble on the flotation performances of different particle size fractions of coal was investigated using a bank of 10-liter flotation cells, a specially designed 50 mm inside diameter column and a 152 mm inside diameter column. It was found that nanobubbles that were either directly formed on or subsequently attached to the surface of coal particles during coal froth flotation process improved flotation efficiency. The use of nanobubble in a bank of mechanical cells flotation and column flotation significantly increased the flotation recovery at a given product grade. Nanobubbles increased the flotation rate constants of different coal particle sizes. The presence of nanobubbles in flotation slurry could extend the lower and the upper particle size limits for effective coal flotation.

Jan 1, 2012

By Frank Florez

INTRODUCTION The Magma mine, located at Superior, AZ, some 100 km (60 miles) east of Phoenix, was discovered in 1875, and was originally mined for silver. The property was acquired by W. B. Thompson who formed the Magma Copper Co. in 1910. Prior to 1965, square-set mining and cut-and-fill methods were used to mine steeply dipping veins at Magma. Ore was moved to the chute by gravity in the square-set stopes and by slusher in the cut-and-fill stopes. The stopes were gobbed with waste from the surface and development headings in the mine. The original square-set method of mining was modi¬fied in order to extract replacement ore bodies in limestones that dipped at 0.52 rad (30°) and varied in thick¬ness from 4.6 to 38 m (15 to 125 ft). Mining of these ore bodies was done by starting at the upper lateral ex¬tremities and retreating to the access openings. The timber square sets and cribbing were used as temporary support, the ground being allowed to cave as the mining retreated. It was found, however, that mining in such a manner was very inefficient; safety hazards increased be¬cause of the blocky and fractured characteristics of the ore and the weakness of the hanging wall. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The undercut-and-fill method of mining is now the primary stoping method used at Magma, and no pillars are left for later extraction. Four ore bodies are pres¬ently being mined. These ore bodies (see Fig. 1) dip conformably at 0.52 rad (30°) to the east with the host limestone and shale sediments, their average strike length is about 122 m (400 ft), and their thickness varies from 9 to 38 m (30 to 125 ft). The ore bodies are separated by varying thicknesses of barren rock. Three of them come together at various elevations primarily in the area of the main feeder fault, but there is an apparent horizontal displacement of about 23 m (75 ft) on the main feeder fault which complicates stope layout. The method as originally applied has been modified in order to mine more efficiently ore bodies that are 9 m (30 ft) or more in thickness. The modification was made to mine all the ore at a given elevation before dropping down for the cut below. The advantage of this is that mining is done on a horizontal plane and there¬fore muck removal can be mechanized. Also multiple faces are made available, thereby improving overall min¬ing efficiency. Another major change made was to carry a 6.7-m (22-ft) face when mining the top sill and a 6.4-m (21-ft) face when mining under fill rather than the former standard 3.35-m (11-ft) high face. This change lengthens the mining cycle and cuts mat prepa¬ration costs in half. Stopes are laid out (see Fig. 2) so that maximum mining panels are available and yet one stope crew will not tie up too much of the ore reserve. One stope might consist of as many as 20 panels, and these panels are divided evenly on opposite sides of the extraction cross¬cut. The stope layout is planned so that the maximum tramming distance to the orepass will not exceed 30.5 m (100 ft) on the crosscut and 38 m (125 ft) in the panel. Stope panel distances are sometimes exceeded when min¬ing to the extremity of the ore body. Tramming distance limits are determined by the efficiency of the com

Jan 1, 1982

By D. Mohapatra

The possibility of using 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol dissolved in tetrachloromethane as extractant for boron recovery is discussed. The parameters optimized for this purpose are contact time, boron concentration in the aqueous phase, extractant concentration, equilibrium pH and phase ratio. NaOH is used as stripping agent for boron recovery from the loaded organic phase. Boron extraction is found to be a slow process (equilibrium time 20 minutes) compared to boron stripping, which is reasonably fast (equilibrium time 5 min). Maximum boron extraction is possible at a broad pH range from 1.0 to 6.0. Using 1.0M extractant concentration, a 1:1 phase ratio (organic: aqueous) and two stages, ~99% boron extraction is achieved. More than 97% boron stripping is possible using 0.5M NaOH at a 1:1 (organic: aqueous) phase ratio in two stages. Overall, a 95.6% boron recovery was achieved. Loss of solvent into the aqueous phase and co-extraction of Ca, Na and K into the organic phase at higher equilibrium pH are two major concerns in his process.

Jan 1, 2008

By M. J. Farrell

The threat of global warming and its prominent position in public discussion and political debate requires all industry to take stock of its contribution to rising atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. For the primary metals industry, the first step must be to identify the pattern and range of emissions at each step in the production chain. Only then can the industry assess the economic consequences of the penalties on emissions that will be imposed by governments and regulators and devise cost-effective plans to avoid or mitigate such penalties. While some work has been done to estimate carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions using Life Cycle Inventory analysis, this approach is less useful than site-by-site emissions estimates. It is the level of specific emissions at each site that will ultimately deter-mine carbon taxation liabilities and participation in emissions trading schemes. Most mining companies have moved with the times to issue sustainability reports for their operations. But in the absence of any standardized reporting format, it is difficult to make useful comparisons between even the best-reported producers on a like-with-like basis. For this reason, Minecost.com modeled the use of fuels and energy used in mining, milling, shipping and metallurgical treatment to cover ?cradle-to-gate? emissions of greenhouse gases resulting from the production of the major base metals copper, zinc, lead and nickel. Greenhouse gas emissions ? overwhelmingly carbon dioxide ? are associated with the consumption of energy at every step in the production chain, from exploration through mining to the production of refined metal. Producers of primary metal employ diverse technologies to mine, mill, smelt and refine several different types of ore. Every orebody has its own special characteristics. In addition, most base metals are produced in concentrate that must be transported to smelters, with con-sequent emissions consequences.

Jan 1, 2009

By Georgene Renner

At the beginning of the 1990s, Communism fell and signaled the end of the Cold War. The world rejoiced but also watched and waited to see how those countries would restructure themselves. The 1990 SME Annual Meeting was held at the Salt Palace Center in Salt Lake City, UT. The keynote session featured Alistair Frame, chairman of RTZ; Paul Queneau, professor of metallurgy at the University of Utah; and TS Ary, director of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The SME Board of Directors voted to hire a Manager of Public Information and Education to be the GEM Program coordinator. This person was to collect and disseminate information that could be used by individual members and Local Sections to interface with government personnel and the general public.

Jan 1, 2007

By Marcus A. Wiley, Gregory Abramov

Borehole mining (BHM) is a remotely operated method of extracting rock material through boreholes by high-pressure water jets. Figure 1 illustrates a BHM tool and fluids circulation. The tool consists of at least two pipes, one for pumping down high-pressure water, the second for delivering slurry to the surface. This article reviews the BHM process. It discusses current and new applications for borehole mining and help the readers determine if BHM is applicable in their situations. Previous articles in ME about BHM explained either a particular project (ME, April 2001, pp. 33-36) or a newest patent in this area (ME, March 1991, pp. 313-318). However, neither one provided an overview on the modern BHM technology.

Jan 1, 2004

By D. J. Dodds, W. L. Schroeder

INTRODUCTION The plate loading test is a simple, useful tool in rock mechanics. The test consists of applying load to a rock surface and noting the resulting deflections. Plate loading tests are typically used to obtain modulus of deformation and related material properties, but can also provide information on blast damage and in situ stresses (1). Properties obtained are of course dependent on test procedure and test environment . In order to eliminate extraneous results it is essential that the interrelationship between the physical test environment and various rock properties obtained be thoroughly understood. Test interpretation is based upon elasticity methods, and the general assumptions made during analysis which include the following: 1. The rock is homogeneous, isotropic, elastic and continuous. 2. The stress is induced in a semi-infinite solid. 3. The plate is perfectly rigid or completely flexible. 4. Rock properties are independent of in situ stresses. 5. The plate and rock surface are smooth and parallel.

Jan 1, 1974

By Wayne Trudel, Eric Saderhold, Lloyd McEvers, Lori Clarke, Charles Lynn Bolin, Leroy Schutz

Editor’s note: This is the second part of a two-part series on how mine geologists added about 141t (4.53 million oz) at Newmont Mining’s gold operations in Nevada during 2003. Part one (ME, July2004, pp. 19-26) showed how cross-functional teamwork among mine geologists, engineers, metallurgists and operators added $65 million in revenues at Newmont’s Gold Quarry Mine. Part two deals with how this same cross-functional team added about 25.8 t (830,000 oz) of gold reserves and two years of life at the company’s LoneTree Mine. This was done through improved reconciliation methods, pit optimization designs and updated geotechnical parameters. Part two also discusses how Newmont’s Nevada mine personnel added about 62.2 t (2 million oz) of gold reserves at its Twin Creeks Mine, extending the mine’s life by several years. The Lone Tree Mine is a sediment-hosted, micron gold deposit. It is dominantly situated in the Golconda thrust footwall. The north-south trending Wayne Zone fault controls the highest-grade ores and

Jan 1, 2004

By S. S. Peng, C. T. Holland

Mountain Top Removal (MTR) mining started in West Virginia nearly thirty years ago. This surface mining method can extract multiple coal seams as thin as a few inches thick with total recovery and minimum rock dilution in very steep mountainous terrain. It is highly efficient even if coal seams are in close proximity and small in aerial extent. Consequently, MTR has been widely used in the Central Appalachian Coalfield (mainly Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia and West Virginia) for the past thirty years with great success. In that respect, there has been no demand for research and little scientific research has been performed to investigate its impacts on the surroundings in the history of MTR mining. However, in the past two years the debate over the MTR mining has grown quickly and in times become very intensely. This paper describes chronologically the issues raised by various parties, legal actions, its impacts on mining permit application and research projects developed to address the issues.

Jan 1, 2000

China’s vibrant economic growth is built on coal, the source of two thirds of the country’s electricity. Over 95 percent of China’s coal is mined underground with the average mining depth at 410 m and in-creasing at 10 m per year; today, the deepest Chinese coal mines have exceeded 1,000 m. With increasing mining depths, there are greater challenges including increased methane emissions and spontaneous combustion. According to the government, nearly half of China’s coal mines are classified as gassy (with specific gas content at least 10 m3/mt). Coalbed methane (CBM) is a clean energy source. However, only a small percentage of the methane is captured, and the rest is vented directly to the atmosphere. This paper describes China’s CBM resource, its production and utilization.

Jan 1, 2006

By Kwangmin Kim, Junnhyeok Park, Taehee Lee, Minkyu Kim

Mine tailings storage facilities (TSFs) can be a significant source of fine, respirable dust. This dust poses concerns, especially for nearby communities, because of its detrimental impact on respiratory health. To address these concerns, this study examined the effectiveness of commercially available polymers, known for their biocompatible and environmentally friendly features, to prevent dust generation from upstream-type TSFs in active mining operations. It focused on two areas in TSFs: the tailings beach and slope/dike surfaces. Two types of polymers—polyethylene glycol and poloxamer—were selected, and their effectiveness was evaluated in a series of phased laboratory and field tests. The lab tests investigated the moisture-retention capacity of the tailings after treatment with the polymer solutions as well as the ability of these solutions to reduce dust emissions. Polymers were applied to a tailings bed surface in the lab and dust was generated from this surface using a wind tunnel. PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations were measured using laser-diffraction dust sensors, and the polymers were found to have reduced dust emissions up to 95%. Small-scale wind-blowing tests were conducted in the field (specifically, in a controlled environment at a TSF) to evaluate polymer effectiveness on the tailings beach and slope/dike areas. The tests revealed that the AP could efficiently suppress approximately 80% of PM10 and PM2.5 dust emissions at both types of areas. Finally, 1000 gallons of AP solution were discharged at the top of tailings beach and slope/dike areas, respectively, and found to be effective. The results of these tests showed the high potential of the biocompatible polymers to be a feasible solution for reducing the respirable dust emissions from upstream TSFs in arid and semi-arid regions.

By Kwangmin Kim, Junnhyeok Park, Taehee Lee, Minkyu Kim

Mine tailings storage facilities (TSFs) can be a significant source of fine, respirable dust. This dust poses concerns, especially for nearby communities, because of its detrimental impact on respiratory health. To address these concerns, this study examined the effectiveness of commercially available polymers, known for their biocompatible and environmentally friendly features, to prevent dust generation from upstream-type TSFs in active mining operations. It focused on two areas in TSFs: the tailings beach and slope/dike surfaces. Two types of polymers—polyethylene glycol and poloxamer—were selected, and their effectiveness was evaluated in a series of phased laboratory and field tests. The lab tests investigated the moisture-retention capacity of the tailings after treatment with the polymer solutions as well as the ability of these solutions to reduce dust emissions. Polymers were applied to a tailings bed surface in the lab and dust was generated from this surface using a wind tunnel. PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations were measured using laser-diffraction dust sensors, and the polymers were found to have reduced dust emissions up to 95%. Small-scale wind-blowing tests were conducted in the field (specifically, in a controlled environment at a TSF) to evaluate polymer effectiveness on the tailings beach and slope/dike areas. The tests revealed that the AP could efficiently suppress approximately 80% of PM10 and PM2.5 dust emissions at both types of areas. Finally, 1000 gallons of AP solution were discharged at the top of tailings beach and slope/dike areas, respectively, and found to be effective. The results of these tests showed the high potential of the biocompatible polymers to be a feasible solution for reducing the respirable dust emissions from upstream TSFs in arid and semi-arid regions.

By J. R. Piper

“Old Borate,” located in the Calico Mountains east of Barstow, California, lead domestic colemanite production from 1884 through 1907. Mineral exploration at “Old Borate” in the early 1980&apos;s, examined borate mineralization in Tertiary lacustrine strata. Surface sample and drill hole locations, geology and structure, were hand-drafted on paper maps. To re-evaluate this data, the information was digitized using Geographic Information Systems software. Digital Elevation Model based terrain modeling integrated surficial samples with drill hole data to locate favorable drilling targets. Structural relationships were used to identify hypothetical resources formed by the leaching of boron from surface exposures, redeposited at depth.

Jan 1, 2001

By Robert J. Timko, Charles D. Taylor, Edward D. Thimons, Tom Mal

A test system was developed for measuring airflow in the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) ventilation gallery using a three-axis ultrasonic anemometer. The gallery was used to simulate face airflow conditions in underground mines having a blowing curtain. Airflow data collected at multiple sampling locations between the face and the end of the curtain were used to draw airflow profiles for different curtain setback distances, intake flow quantities and entry widths. In addition, methane was released at the face, measured at the sampling locations, and displayed as methane distribution in the area between the curtain and the face. Entry geometry had a significant effect on airflow patterns, and the flow patterns affected the distribution of methane in the entry. Flow measured at and parallel to the face was a good predictor of methane dilution and removal within two feet of the face.

Jan 1, 2005

By K. V. S. Sastry, K. D. Lofftus

Mathematical modeling and computer simulation are two valuable quantitative tools that are being effectively applied to mineral process- systems. This paper presents an up-to-date assessment of process modeling and simulation, identifies a number of associated challenges and opportunities and discusses in detail sane of the aspects of applying the current state-the art modeling and computational tools.

Jan 1, 1989