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By Charles Enzian

This report is issued by the Bureau of Mines as one of a series dealing with methods of increasing safety and efficiency in mining operations. It is intended purely as a preliminary statement of the present development of hydraulic mine filling as conducted in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania. A discussion of different methods, their variations and modifications, as well as their probable extension as a result of amplified tests of the various roof-supporting materials, will be presented in a future bulletin. The history of the development of the anthracite-mining industry, from the time when the Indian tribes in the Wyoming and Lacka- wanna Valleys first discovered the existence of "stone coal," on through subsequent events-the purchase of lands containing enor- mous deposits of coal for insignificant sums of money, the develop- ment of the first mine, the formation of the first company, the build- ing of canals and railroads-up to the present time when the industry has become of such tremendous importance to the prosperity of north- eastern Pennsylvania and of the Nation itself, is intersprinkled with romance, tragedy, and pathos. The great economic lessons to be learned from a study of mining operations in the anthracite region suggest to the person interested in the efficient utilization of natural resources the need of applying such methods as will make possible the conservation to posterity of this invaluable deposit of coal that has resulted from the operation of the processes of nature during probably hundreds of millions of years. It is the opinion of many prominent mining men familiar with mining operations in the United States and abroad that under certain conditions the most practical way of preventing loss of unmined coal in pillars and of protecting surface property from damage by sub- sidence is by filling the workings with refuse material. This bulletin aims to present a general discussion of hydraulic mine filling, its origin, development, and practicability in anthracite mining.

Jan 1, 1913

By GEORGE S. POPE

The purchase of coal by the Government under specifications depending on the heating value of the coal, its content of ash and of moisture, and other considerations, rather than upon the reputation or trade name of the coal, was based on the fuel investigations begun by the Technologic Branch of the United States Geological Survey in 1904. The plan was first adopted by the Treasury Department in 1906. Since then the plan, variously modified in form but the same in principle, has been gradually adopted by other departments until at present of the coal used by the Government, the total value of which approximates $8,000,000 annually, more than half is purchased under specifications. The Government publications dealing with the adoption by the Government of the specification plan, the number of contracts awarded on that basis, and the quality of the coal delivered under such contracts in the several fiscal years covered by the reports are given in publications listed at the end of this bulletin. Under the authority of acts of Congress making appropriations for analyzing and testing fuels belonging to or for the use of the United States Government, a laboratory is maintained at the headquarters of the Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C., where samples represent- ing deliveries of coal purchased under specifications for Government use are analyzed and tested. At this laboratory more than 1,200 samples have been analyzed and tested in one month. With the complete equipment and the efficient force employed, the analytical work has been so perfected that the analyses and heating-value tests of the samples received are as accurate as may be reasonably expected in laboratory work of this nature. One of the serious drawbacks to the general adoption of the speci- fication method for the purchase of coal is the difficulty of obtaining at reasonable cost samples of coal that can be considered fairly repre- sentative of the commercial product delivered in wagons, railroad

Jan 1, 1913

By G. C. Reed, J. A. Herdlick

The Blackbird district, Lemhi County, Idaho, has long been recognized as a potential source of cobalt and copper. Exploration of the early discoveries in the area was largely discouraged by the comparatively low grade and small size of the known ore bodies, the slight demand for cobalt, and the lack of adequate roads throughout the region. Recent advances in the field of alloy metallurgy culminated in a steadily expanding demand for cobalt. This demand was finally accentuated to critical proportions in 1940 by worldwide rearmament programs and by the threatened disruption of foreign imports by submarine warfare.

Feb 1, 1947

By Gerald L. Finfinger, Syd S. Peng

Geology is an integral part of roof control, mine design, and production operations. Yet, the importance of geology, coal/rock as an engineering construction material and its properties and behavior within the planned mine areas, in overall mine production operations has not been hilly appreciated. Of all of the engineering disciplines, mining engineers work with the most challenging construction materials. They must deal with rock materials as they exist in their natural states and design mine structures without well-known and defined properties. Further complicating the design process is the variability of the in-situ rock materials with rock types and rock properties varying widely from place-to-place. Predicting properties in advance of mining is difficult and oftentimes impossible. This is why some types of roof-control failures may suddenly occur in some areas when a single roof-control technique is consistently applied to an entire panel, section, or mine. Many roof-control techniques are primarily applicable to the geological conditions that were assumed in the development of those techniques and variations of the rocker rock properties may require modification or significant redesign of the support technology.

By E. J. Babcock

The existence of vast deposits of lignite in the West Central and Western States is well known, although the extent and importance of the deposits have not been appreciated, nor has there been an adequate economic utilization of the deposits. The work of the Bureau of Mines, the United States Geological Survey, and the State geological surveys is disclosing an increasingly large area, underlaid with this kind of coal. Among the States having the largest workable deposits may be mentioned North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and Texas, and in several other Western States lignite occurs in smaller areas. In North Dakota alone it is estimated that the deposits cover approximately 32,000 square miles, many of them being 10 to 15 feet thick and capable of producing in all several hundred billions of tons of lignite. When one stops to consider what these figures mean as to the immensity of these deposits in the West, it is not strange that people are seeking to ascertain better means for deriving larger benefits from the proper utilization of those great deposits. Consequently, any proposed methods of utilization that are promising are well worthy of careful consideration.

Jan 1, 1915

By Van H. Manning

PETROLEUM INVESTIGATIONS. The work of the petroleum division of the Bureau of Mines during the period of the war was under the supervision of Chester Naramore, chief petroleum technologist. In its petroleum investigations the bureau cooperated freely with other Government bureaus and acted as a source of information on petroleum matters. COOPERATIVE WORK ON INTERALLIED PETROLEUM COMMISSION. On July 15, 1918, Mr. Naramore and W. E. Perdew, chemical en- gineer of the bureau, left for London to act as representatives of the United States Fuel Administration and the United States Shipping Board on the Inter-allied Petroleum Commission. Numerous con- ferences were held with representatives from France, England, and Italy on specifications and requirements of the various allied Govern- ments for petroleum products, and for this purpose meetings were held in London, Paris, and Rome. EXAMINATION OF PETROLEUM FACILITIES IN FRANCE. The storage facilities and the transportation system in France were studied, and recommendations based on the information gained were made to the director of the oil division of the Fuel Administra- tion and to the chairman of the Shipping Board. Refinery plants in France were inspected, as well as filling stations and shipping facilities from ports in France and Italy to the various fronts and the petroleum base of the American Expeditionary Force at Romorantin. France. At the request of Ambassador Sharp, a re- port was prepared on the advisability of developing the petroleum resources in France.

Jun 1, 1919

By Dennis Cox, Stephen P. Signer, Joanne Johnston

A method to assist in the evaluation and selection of roof bolts using in situ measurements of roof bolt loading has been developed by researchers of the Spokane Research Center, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Both axial and bending forces are measured by strain gauges at many locations along the length of fully grouted bolts during various stages of mining. This information is then used to (1) predict bolt loading for variations in bolt spacing, grade, and diameter, (2) calculate the design changes necessary in zones where bending loads are high, and (3) determine if bolt length is adequate. Results from several case studies of full-column bolt loading in coal mine gate roads are used to illustrate the design method. This knowledge will give design engineers a tool for the selection of roof support systems that will improve underground safety by reducing roof bolt failures.

In Maryland, coal mining is confined to Garrett County and the western portion of Allegany .County. Terrain in both counties is predominately level with rolling hills; state law prohibits surface mining in steep slope areas. The Conemaugh and Allegany geologic formations contain five major minable fields or basins. These include: Upper Youghiogheny, Lower Youghiogheny, Castleman, Upper Potomac, and Georges Creek. Maryland's coal reserves are estimated to exceed one billion tons. Approximately 490 million tons of bituminous coal are considered recoverable using conventional mining methods. After World War 11, deep mining declined in Maryland, and by 1977 surface mining accounted for 91 percent of the total production. Since then, production at underground mines has recovered, accounting for 69 percent of the coal production in 1991. Maryland's permanent regulatory program was fully approved February 18, 1982. Its Abandoned Mine Land Program was approved June 16,1982.

Jan 1, 1992

This report, which updates and supersedes the Office of Surface Mining's 10-year progress report published in 1987, deals with the accomplishments of the regulatory and abandoned mine land reclamation programs during the first 15 years of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). Part 1 is an illustrated description of on-the-ground accomplishments; Part 2 presents statistical information for the 15-year period. The data in this statistical report are organized in two sections: national statistics and state statistics. The national statistics provide an overview of coal mining and the implementation of SMCRA since 1977. The information reported for the states presents a brief description of the coal reserves in each area, accompanied by detailed statistics and graphs that relate each state to the nation as a whole. The statistics compiled in this report are from the Office of Surface Mining's files, computer data systems, and annual reports. During the early years of the program, many of the data categories were evolving and changing; therefore, data reported over the 15-year period are not complete for all states for all years, and where data was unavailable or zero, a dash (-) is shown for that item. The data sources used to compile the tables and graphs are listed and described in detail on page 76. Due to the number of requests for this information in the past, statistical information about coal mining and its regulation will be available each year as an appendix to the Office of Surface Mining's Annual Report to Congress. Beginning in Fiscal Year 1993, this information will be compiled and published on an annual basis. For more information about this report, call or write the: Public Affairs Office Office of Surface Mining 1951 Constitution Ave., N. W. Washington, D.C. 20240 (202) 208-2553

Jan 1, 1992

By Richard F. Link, George W. Gladfelter, George S. Koch

Contour maps, useful in mineral industries, for example, in analysis of trends in mineralization, may be constructed through statistical methods of regression analysis programed for an electronic computer, For many applica­tions, the resulting maps are more useful and objective than conventional contour maps that are necessarily subjective because they are drawn by hand methods. In principle, an equation is found that fits a quadratic surface to observed elevations of points referred to a datum plane, The quadratic sur­face, represented by a contour map may take the form of a ridge, valley, dome, or basin, Once an equation has been derived, its coefficients may be used to construct a contour map--showing lines of equal value that are derived from the original observed data points by the averaging process of fitting the quadratic surface. Methods employed are illustrated by an example analysis, based on data from a large vein of the Fresnillo mine, Zacatecas, Mexico. Computer programs to implement the methods are described in an appendix,

Jan 1, 1964

By Karl L. Kithil, Richard B. Moore

This bulletin presents a summary of available information regarding the sources of uranium, radium, and vanadium, the methods used in treating the ores, and the uses of the finished products. In particu- lar the paper describes the ores found in the United States, giving especial attention to those characteristics of the ores and the conditions of their occurrence that affect mining and treatment.

Jan 1, 1916

By W. E. Young

Iron ore occurs in abundance in Iron and Washington Counties in southwestern Utah. Outcrops are encountered over a wide area extending from Paragonah on the northeast to Bull Valley on the southwest. Outcrops also occur on the Wah Wah Range and on Blue Mountain on the north edge of Iron County. The greater concentration of known deposits occurs in and around the margins of three mountainous uplifts - Iron Mountain, Granite Mountain, and Three Peaks - comprising a belt about 3 miles wide and 23 miles long (fig. 1). This area was partly explored by the Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the Geophysical Division of the Bureau of Mines and the Geological Survey under the strategic minerals program during 1942 to 1945. The exploratory work comprised geological and topographic mapping, geophysical prospecting with a magnetometer, diamond drilling, trenching and test pitting, sampling ore exposures and old workings, and constructing and repairing roads. The Pinto-Iron Springs district is the most important known source of iron ore for the steel plants of the West. The future economic status of the Intermountain and Pacific coast regions will depend largely upon the successful development and exploitation of substantial iron-ore bodies in this district.

May 1, 1947

By C. L. Wright

In 1904 the Government began a series of fuel-testing investiga- tions at its fuel-testing plant at St. Louis, Mo. These investigations, which were placed under the supervision of the United States Geo- logical Survey, included chemical analyses, steaming tests, gas- producer tests, briquetting tests, coking tests, and washing tests of samples collected from the various coal fields of the country. The specific purpose of the investigations was to analyze and test the coals and lignites in the United States, in order to deternime their fuel values and the most efficient methods of utilizing them for different purposes. Part of the fuel-testing plant, including the briquetting equipment, was moved to Norfolk, Va., in 1907, and the fuel-testing investiga- tions were made one of the divisions of the technologic branch of the Geological Survey. In 1908, after the close of the Jamestown Exposition, most of the fuel-testing equipment was removed to its present location at the Pittsburgh experiment station, Fortieth and Butler Streets, Pittsburgh, Pa. In 1910, an act of Congress, effective July 1, established the Bureau of Mines in the Department of the Interior and authorized the transfer to this bureau of the fuel-testing investigations that had been carried on by the technologic branch. Bulletins presenting the results of various inquiries and investiga- tions relating to briquetting have been published by the Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines. As the supply of some of these bulletins is exhausted, the Bureau of Mines has decided, instead of reprinting them, to publish the more important facts they contain

Jan 1, 1913

By W. H. Ode, W. A. Selvig

Investigations have shown interesting relationships between primary-tar and light-oil yields and chemical analyses of coals. These studies have been based largely upon results published by the Bureau of Mines in connection with its survey of the gas-, coke-, and byproduct-making properties of American coals. This paper gives the results of a similar correlation in which the range in rank and type has been extended to include nearly all classes of coal, the object being to determine relationships that are significant in predicting tar and light-oil yields from chemical analyses of coals. The yields of primary tar and light oil are important in two fields of coal utilization, namely, combustion and carbonization. It is generally recognized that the principal cause of smoke produced upon burning coal is incomplete combustion of tar and light-oil vapor released during burning. The greater the tar and light-oil yields of a coal, the greater is its potential smoke-producing property. During the present war, development of new sources of fuel oil has been emphasized, especially where the supply of petroleum products is limited. One possible source of a substitute fuel is the tar and light oil that can be obtained by low-temperature carbonization of coal. In both England and Germany large quantities of low-temperature tar and oil are being processed as a source of liquid fuels. It is obvious that primary-tar and light-oil yields are of paramount importance in the selection of coals for such use.

Mar 1, 1944

By J. F. Barkley

 This paper describes the method used and results obtained in testing a hand-fired down-draft furnace at a plant in Washington, D. C., in order to determine the method of firing that would give the best results with a minimu of smoke. The smoke regulations of the District of Columbia are very rigid, and are well enforced, A paragraph of the ordinance relating to furnaces other than household, reads, "The emission of dense or thick black or gray smoke or cinders from any smokestack or chimney 113ed in connection with any stationary engine, steam boiler, or furnace of any description within the District of Columbia shall be deemed, and is hereby declared, to be a public nuisance". This ordinance, if literally enforced, would eliminate all ordinary hand-fired grates and furnace combinations where coal other then anthracite is used. However, in several Gov- ernment plants where hand-firing of coal is still necessary conditions have been satisfactorily met by installing the down-draft type of furnace. In these plants, as at all hand-fired plants, considerable difference in operating details and methods is found. The firemen are paid day laborer's wages and are often inexperienced. The instructions of the furnace makers fre- quently do not appeal to the firemen, and are not closely followed, This is partly due to the necessity of running the boilers continuously at much higher ratings than were intended by the manufacturer. Tests were made on a Hawley furnace of this type to improve the methods of firing, particularly at the higher ratings.

May 1, 1924

By Launa G. Mallett, Robert H. Peters, Barbara Fotta

Due to variations in the thickness of U.S. coal seams, there is great variability in the height of the roof where underground miners work. Restrictions imposed by low seam heights have important safety consequences. As the height of their workplace decreases, miners must stoop, duck walk, or crawl, and their vision, posture, and mobility become increasingly restricted. Low seam height also places important restrictions on the design of mobile equipment and other mining machinery. Using the employment and injury data reported to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) from 1990 to 19% small underground bituminous coal mines with less than 50 employees were stratified by average coal seam height according to the following categories: low (? 42"), medium (43"60N), and high (? 61"). Injury rates for both nonfatal days lost and fatality cases were examined by seam height and leading type of injury incidents. The leading types of Incidents associated with fatalities were roof falls and powered haulage equipment. In comparison to high-seam mines, miners working in low or medium seams are at higher risk of being killed by powered haulage equipment, roof bolting machines, and falls of unsupported roof. The leading types of incidents associated with nonfatal injuries were handling materials and powered haulage. As mining height decreases, miners are at increasingly higher risk of having a nonfatal injury from incidents involving roof bolting machines, load-haul-dump equipment, personnel carriers, and powered haulage conveyors. As mining height increases, miners are at increasingly higher risk of having a nonfatal injury from slips and falls and incidents involving shuttle cars and roof and rib falls. Knee injuries are a particularly severe problem in low- seam mines. The rate of injuries to miners while crawling or kneeling is 10 times higher in low seams than in high seams

By D. Harrington

Notwithstanding all the effort maa.e to introduce wet drills to prevent dustiness of air of metal-mine workint;s pl2.ces, there has during the pa.st few years arisen in Australia and South Africa an impression that wet drills, in­cluding the Leyner typa, actuali"y cause und..ue quantities of finely divided ore and rock to rise into the air, these fine particles being chiefly attached to · P=i-rticles of fog or spray escc:.ping frow holes using water drills. This fs saia. to have created consternation in the ranks of the min operators who have com­piiei With drastic wet dri llin rf,ubtions, 2nc:i. purchased and operateC1. various types of wet drills at no inconsiderable expeniiture in both money and effort.

Mar 1, 1922

By Ira E. Sproat

The question "Why can not American kaolins be substituted for English china clay?" has been asked time and time again, and more often since the beginning of the present war in Europe, which has threatened to cut off the supply of European clays imported from abroad. The answer to this question has invariably been, that the domestic kaolins are not as pure and uniform in composition as the imported clays. This demand for white-burning American clays is of such economic importance that it was considered advisable to determine whether some of our vast deposits of impure white clays could not be refined sufficiently to permit their being substituted for the foreign materials. Up to the present time mechanical principles only have been applied in the refining of kaolins, but in order to keep pace with the increasing requirements for better quality and uniformity of product, the application of the principles of colloidal chemistry is necessary. The investigation described in this report was carried on to deter- mine the practicability of applying technical control of clay disperse systems to the refining of kaolins and the utilization of the prepared clay in the manufacture of vitreous china and wall tile. It is hoped that this report will prove a stimulus to the clay- washing industry; will point out a method of refining certain Amer- ican clays, and will lead to the substitution of domestic kaolins for imported china clays by manufacturers of high-grade ceramic wares.

Jan 1, 1916

By James Rowland

On June 1, 2004, the underground coal mine ventilation safety standards under the Code of Federal Regulations (Title 30, Part 75) became effective for the use of a conveyor belt entry as an intake air course to ventilate working sections. These standards, also known as the Belt Air Rule, contained a section which limited the air velocity in the conveyor belt entry to no greater than 500 feet per minute unless otherwise approved by the US Mine Safety and Health Administration in the fire suppression system section of a mine?s ventilation plan. The Belt Air Rule included a requirement dictating compatibility of air velocity with fire suppression systems. The final rule of limiting air velocity in the belt entry was challenged in the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The court granted that petition and vacated the requirement on the air velocity cap, according to MSHA. The removal of the air velocity cap from the final rule, paired with the compatibility requirement, led to a need for research on high air velocity?s influence on fire suppression system performance in belt entries. Test data was needed that illustrated the relationship between fire suppression system performance and air velocity, especially with the increased use of wider belts in underground coal mines, so National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and MSHA collaborated to obtain the data. However, this work was initiated before the revised Belt Air Rule was promulgated on December 31, 2008, when 1000 fpm air velocity became a requirement. Four different

Jan 1, 2009

By O. C. Ralston, L. H. Duschak, R. D. Pike

Much detailed information on the production of plastic magnesia from magnesite mined near Chewelah, Wash., was accumulated during a cooperative investigation conducted by the Bureau of Mines and the Northwest Magnesite Co. at the laboratories of the University of California in 1919-1921. This bulletin gives mainly the results of the work done with Chewelah magnesite, supplemented by data on similar work with other magnesites, particularly those of California, in the endeavor to produce a plastic magnesia that would be satisfactory for making the so-called " Sorel" cement composition flooring, stucco, and plasters. As standardized methods £or testing such compositions did not exist, it was necessary to examine carefully the various methods in use and choose those that seemed appropriate. In consequence, this report contains many tests made by the methods selected and can be used £or reference by those who wish to adopt standard methods of testing.

Jan 1, 1925